7. Simple statements¶
A simple statement is comprised within a single logical line. Several simple statements may occur on a single line separated by semicolons. The syntax for simple statements is:
simple_stmt ::=expression_stmt
|assert_stmt
|assignment_stmt
|augmented_assignment_stmt
|annotated_assignment_stmt
|pass_stmt
|del_stmt
|return_stmt
|yield_stmt
|raise_stmt
|break_stmt
|continue_stmt
|import_stmt
|future_stmt
|global_stmt
|nonlocal_stmt
7.1. Expression statements¶
Expression statements are used (mostly interactively) to compute and write a
value, or (usually) to call a procedure (a function that returns no meaningful
result; in Python, procedures return the value None
). Other uses of
expression statements are allowed and occasionally useful. The syntax for an
expression statement is:
expression_stmt ::= starred_expression
An expression statement evaluates the expression list (which may be a single expression).
In interactive mode, if the value is not None
, it is converted to a string
using the built-in repr()
function and the resulting string is written to
standard output on a line by itself (except if the result is None
, so that
procedure calls do not cause any output.)
7.2. Assignment statements¶
Assignment statements are used to (re)bind names to values and to modify attributes or items of mutable objects:
assignment_stmt ::= (target_list
"=")+ (starred_expression
|yield_expression
) target_list ::=target
(","target
)* [","] target ::=identifier
| "(" [target_list
] ")" | "[" [target_list
] "]" |attributeref
|subscription
|slicing
| "*"target
(See section Primaries for the syntax definitions for attributeref, subscription, and slicing.)
An assignment statement evaluates the expression list (remember that this can be a single expression or a comma-separated list, the latter yielding a tuple) and assigns the single resulting object to each of the target lists, from left to right.
Assignment is defined recursively depending on the form of the target (list). When a target is part of a mutable object (an attribute reference, subscription or slicing), the mutable object must ultimately perform the assignment and decide about its validity, and may raise an exception if the assignment is unacceptable. The rules observed by various types and the exceptions raised are given with the definition of the object types (see section The standard type hierarchy).
Assignment of an object to a target list, optionally enclosed in parentheses or square brackets, is recursively defined as follows.
If the target list is a single target with no trailing comma, optionally in parentheses, the object is assigned to that target.
Else:
If the target list contains one target prefixed with an asterisk, called a „starred” target: The object must be an iterable with at least as many items as there are targets in the target list, minus one. The first items of the iterable are assigned, from left to right, to the targets before the starred target. The final items of the iterable are assigned to the targets after the starred target. A list of the remaining items in the iterable is then assigned to the starred target (the list can be empty).
Else: The object must be an iterable with the same number of items as there are targets in the target list, and the items are assigned, from left to right, to the corresponding targets.
Assignment of an object to a single target is recursively defined as follows.
If the target is an identifier (name):
If the name does not occur in a
global
ornonlocal
statement in the current code block: the name is bound to the object in the current local namespace.Otherwise: the name is bound to the object in the global namespace or the outer namespace determined by
nonlocal
, respectively.
The name is rebound if it was already bound. This may cause the reference count for the object previously bound to the name to reach zero, causing the object to be deallocated and its destructor (if it has one) to be called.
If the target is an attribute reference: The primary expression in the reference is evaluated. It should yield an object with assignable attributes; if this is not the case,
TypeError
is raised. That object is then asked to assign the assigned object to the given attribute; if it cannot perform the assignment, it raises an exception (usually but not necessarilyAttributeError
).Note: If the object is a class instance and the attribute reference occurs on both sides of the assignment operator, the right-hand side expression,
a.x
can access either an instance attribute or (if no instance attribute exists) a class attribute. The left-hand side targeta.x
is always set as an instance attribute, creating it if necessary. Thus, the two occurrences ofa.x
do not necessarily refer to the same attribute: if the right-hand side expression refers to a class attribute, the left-hand side creates a new instance attribute as the target of the assignment:class Cls: x = 3 # class variable inst = Cls() inst.x = inst.x + 1 # writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3
This description does not necessarily apply to descriptor attributes, such as properties created with
property()
.If the target is a subscription: The primary expression in the reference is evaluated. It should yield either a mutable sequence object (such as a list) or a mapping object (such as a dictionary). Next, the subscript expression is evaluated.
If the primary is a mutable sequence object (such as a list), the subscript must yield an integer. If it is negative, the sequence’s length is added to it. The resulting value must be a nonnegative integer less than the sequence’s length, and the sequence is asked to assign the assigned object to its item with that index. If the index is out of range,
IndexError
is raised (assignment to a subscripted sequence cannot add new items to a list).If the primary is a mapping object (such as a dictionary), the subscript must have a type compatible with the mapping’s key type, and the mapping is then asked to create a key/datum pair which maps the subscript to the assigned object. This can either replace an existing key/value pair with the same key value, or insert a new key/value pair (if no key with the same value existed).
For user-defined objects, the
__setitem__()
method is called with appropriate arguments.If the target is a slicing: The primary expression in the reference is evaluated. It should yield a mutable sequence object (such as a list). The assigned object should be a sequence object of the same type. Next, the lower and upper bound expressions are evaluated, insofar they are present; defaults are zero and the sequence’s length. The bounds should evaluate to integers. If either bound is negative, the sequence’s length is added to it. The resulting bounds are clipped to lie between zero and the sequence’s length, inclusive. Finally, the sequence object is asked to replace the slice with the items of the assigned sequence. The length of the slice may be different from the length of the assigned sequence, thus changing the length of the target sequence, if the target sequence allows it.
CPython implementation detail: In the current implementation, the syntax for targets is taken to be the same as for expressions, and invalid syntax is rejected during the code generation phase, causing less detailed error messages.
Although the definition of assignment implies that overlaps between the
left-hand side and the right-hand side are «simultaneous» (for example a, b =
b, a
swaps two variables), overlaps within the collection of assigned-to
variables occur left-to-right, sometimes resulting in confusion. For instance,
the following program prints [0, 2]
:
x = [0, 1]
i = 0
i, x[i] = 1, 2 # i is updated, then x[i] is updated
print(x)
Zobacz także
- PEP 3132 - Extended Iterable Unpacking
The specification for the
*target
feature.
7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements¶
Augmented assignment is the combination, in a single statement, of a binary operation and an assignment statement:
augmented_assignment_stmt ::=augtarget
augop
(expression_list
|yield_expression
) augtarget ::=identifier
|attributeref
|subscription
|slicing
augop ::= "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "@=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "**=" | ">>=" | "<<=" | "&=" | "^=" | "|="
(See section Primaries for the syntax definitions of the last three symbols.)
An augmented assignment evaluates the target (which, unlike normal assignment statements, cannot be an unpacking) and the expression list, performs the binary operation specific to the type of assignment on the two operands, and assigns the result to the original target. The target is only evaluated once.
An augmented assignment expression like x += 1
can be rewritten as x = x +
1
to achieve a similar, but not exactly equal effect. In the augmented
version, x
is only evaluated once. Also, when possible, the actual operation
is performed in-place, meaning that rather than creating a new object and
assigning that to the target, the old object is modified instead.
Unlike normal assignments, augmented assignments evaluate the left-hand side
before evaluating the right-hand side. For example, a[i] += f(x)
first
looks-up a[i]
, then it evaluates f(x)
and performs the addition, and
lastly, it writes the result back to a[i]
.
With the exception of assigning to tuples and multiple targets in a single statement, the assignment done by augmented assignment statements is handled the same way as normal assignments. Similarly, with the exception of the possible in-place behavior, the binary operation performed by augmented assignment is the same as the normal binary operations.
For targets which are attribute references, the same caveat about class and instance attributes applies as for regular assignments.
7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements¶
Annotation assignment is the combination, in a single statement, of a variable or attribute annotation and an optional assignment statement:
annotated_assignment_stmt ::=augtarget
":"expression
["=" (starred_expression
|yield_expression
)]
The difference from normal Assignment statements is that only single target is allowed.
For simple names as assignment targets, if in class or module scope,
the annotations are evaluated and stored in a special class or module
attribute __annotations__
that is a dictionary mapping from variable names (mangled if private) to
evaluated annotations. This attribute is writable and is automatically
created at the start of class or module body execution, if annotations
are found statically.
For expressions as assignment targets, the annotations are evaluated if in class or module scope, but not stored.
If a name is annotated in a function scope, then this name is local for that scope. Annotations are never evaluated and stored in function scopes.
If the right hand side is present, an annotated
assignment performs the actual assignment before evaluating annotations
(where applicable). If the right hand side is not present for an expression
target, then the interpreter evaluates the target except for the last
__setitem__()
or __setattr__()
call.
Zobacz także
- PEP 526 - Syntax for Variable Annotations
The proposal that added syntax for annotating the types of variables (including class variables and instance variables), instead of expressing them through comments.
- PEP 484 - Type hints
The proposal that added the
typing
module to provide a standard syntax for type annotations that can be used in static analysis tools and IDEs.
Zmienione w wersji 3.8: Now annotated assignments allow same expressions in the right hand side as the regular assignments. Previously, some expressions (like un-parenthesized tuple expressions) caused a syntax error.
7.3. The assert
statement¶
Assert statements are a convenient way to insert debugging assertions into a program:
assert_stmt ::= "assert"expression
[","expression
]
The simple form, assert expression
, is equivalent to
if __debug__:
if not expression: raise AssertionError
The extended form, assert expression1, expression2
, is equivalent to
if __debug__:
if not expression1: raise AssertionError(expression2)
These equivalences assume that __debug__
and AssertionError
refer to
the built-in variables with those names. In the current implementation, the
built-in variable __debug__
is True
under normal circumstances,
False
when optimization is requested (command line option -O
). The current
code generator emits no code for an assert statement when optimization is
requested at compile time. Note that it is unnecessary to include the source
code for the expression that failed in the error message; it will be displayed
as part of the stack trace.
Assignments to __debug__
are illegal. The value for the built-in variable
is determined when the interpreter starts.
7.4. The pass
statement¶
pass_stmt ::= "pass"
pass
is a null operation — when it is executed, nothing happens.
It is useful as a placeholder when a statement is required syntactically, but no
code needs to be executed, for example:
def f(arg): pass # a function that does nothing (yet)
class C: pass # a class with no methods (yet)
7.5. Instrukcja del
¶
del_stmt ::= "del" target_list
Deletion is recursively defined very similar to the way assignment is defined. Rather than spelling it out in full details, here are some hints.
Deletion of a target list recursively deletes each target, from left to right.
Deletion of a name removes the binding of that name from the local or global
namespace, depending on whether the name occurs in a global
statement
in the same code block. If the name is unbound, a NameError
exception
will be raised.
Deletion of attribute references, subscriptions and slicings is passed to the primary object involved; deletion of a slicing is in general equivalent to assignment of an empty slice of the right type (but even this is determined by the sliced object).
Zmienione w wersji 3.2: Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block.
7.6. The return
statement¶
return_stmt ::= "return" [expression_list
]
return
may only occur syntactically nested in a function definition,
not within a nested class definition.
If an expression list is present, it is evaluated, else None
is substituted.
return
leaves the current function call with the expression list (or
None
) as return value.
When return
passes control out of a try
statement with a
finally
clause, that finally
clause is executed before
really leaving the function.
In a generator function, the return
statement indicates that the
generator is done and will cause StopIteration
to be raised. The returned
value (if any) is used as an argument to construct StopIteration
and
becomes the StopIteration.value
attribute.
In an asynchronous generator function, an empty return
statement
indicates that the asynchronous generator is done and will cause
StopAsyncIteration
to be raised. A non-empty return
statement is a syntax error in an asynchronous generator function.
7.7. The yield
statement¶
yield_stmt ::= yield_expression
A yield
statement is semantically equivalent to a yield
expression. The yield statement can be used to omit the parentheses
that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield expression
statement. For example, the yield statements
yield <expr>
yield from <expr>
are equivalent to the yield expression statements
(yield <expr>)
(yield from <expr>)
Yield expressions and statements are only used when defining a generator function, and are only used in the body of the generator function. Using yield in a function definition is sufficient to cause that definition to create a generator function instead of a normal function.
For full details of yield
semantics, refer to the
Yield expressions section.
7.8. The raise
statement¶
raise_stmt ::= "raise" [expression
["from"expression
]]
If no expressions are present, raise
re-raises the
exception that is currently being handled, which is also known as the active exception.
If there isn’t currently an active exception, a RuntimeError
exception is raised
indicating that this is an error.
Otherwise, raise
evaluates the first expression as the exception
object. It must be either a subclass or an instance of BaseException
.
If it is a class, the exception instance will be obtained when needed by
instantiating the class with no arguments.
The type of the exception is the exception instance’s class, the value is the instance itself.
A traceback object is normally created automatically when an exception is raised
and attached to it as the __traceback__
attribute, which is writable.
You can create an exception and set your own traceback in one step using the
with_traceback()
exception method (which returns the
same exception instance, with its traceback set to its argument), like so:
raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)
The from
clause is used for exception chaining: if given, the second
expression must be another exception class or instance. If the second
expression is an exception instance, it will be attached to the raised
exception as the __cause__
attribute (which is writable). If the
expression is an exception class, the class will be instantiated and the
resulting exception instance will be attached to the raised exception as the
__cause__
attribute. If the raised exception is not handled, both
exceptions will be printed:
>>> try:
... print(1 / 0)
... except Exception as exc:
... raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
RuntimeError: Something bad happened
A similar mechanism works implicitly if a new exception is raised when
an exception is already being handled. An exception may be handled
when an except
or finally
clause, or a
with
statement, is used. The previous exception is then
attached as the new exception’s __context__
attribute:
>>> try:
... print(1 / 0)
... except:
... raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
RuntimeError: Something bad happened
Exception chaining can be explicitly suppressed by specifying None
in
the from
clause:
>>> try:
... print(1 / 0)
... except:
... raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from None
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
RuntimeError: Something bad happened
Additional information on exceptions can be found in section Sytuacje Wyjątkowe, and information about handling exceptions is in section The try statement.
Zmienione w wersji 3.3: None
is now permitted as Y
in raise X from Y
.
Nowe w wersji 3.3: The __suppress_context__
attribute to suppress automatic display of the
exception context.
7.9. The break
statement¶
break_stmt ::= "break"
break
may only occur syntactically nested in a for
or
while
loop, but not nested in a function or class definition within
that loop.
It terminates the nearest enclosing loop, skipping the optional else
clause if the loop has one.
If a for
loop is terminated by break
, the loop control
target keeps its current value.
When break
passes control out of a try
statement with a
finally
clause, that finally
clause is executed before
really leaving the loop.
7.10. The continue
statement¶
continue_stmt ::= "continue"
continue
may only occur syntactically nested in a for
or
while
loop, but not nested in a function or class definition within
that loop. It continues with the next cycle of the nearest enclosing loop.
When continue
passes control out of a try
statement with a
finally
clause, that finally
clause is executed before
really starting the next loop cycle.
7.11. The import
statement¶
import_stmt ::= "import"module
["as"identifier
] (","module
["as"identifier
])* | "from"relative_module
"import"identifier
["as"identifier
] (","identifier
["as"identifier
])* | "from"relative_module
"import" "("identifier
["as"identifier
] (","identifier
["as"identifier
])* [","] ")" | "from"relative_module
"import" "*" module ::= (identifier
".")*identifier
relative_module ::= "."*module
| "."+
The basic import statement (no from
clause) is executed in two
steps:
find a module, loading and initializing it if necessary
define a name or names in the local namespace for the scope where the
import
statement occurs.
When the statement contains multiple clauses (separated by commas) the two steps are carried out separately for each clause, just as though the clauses had been separated out into individual import statements.
The details of the first step, finding and loading modules are described in greater detail in the section on the import system, which also describes the various types of packages and modules that can be imported, as well as all the hooks that can be used to customize the import system. Note that failures in this step may indicate either that the module could not be located, or that an error occurred while initializing the module, which includes execution of the module’s code.
If the requested module is retrieved successfully, it will be made available in the local namespace in one of three ways:
Jeżeli po nazwie modułu następuje
as
, to nazwa następująca poas
jest powiązana bezpośrednio z importowanym modułem.If no other name is specified, and the module being imported is a top level module, the module’s name is bound in the local namespace as a reference to the imported module
If the module being imported is not a top level module, then the name of the top level package that contains the module is bound in the local namespace as a reference to the top level package. The imported module must be accessed using its full qualified name rather than directly
The from
form uses a slightly more complex process:
find the module specified in the
from
clause, loading and initializing it if necessary;for each of the identifiers specified in the
import
clauses:check if the imported module has an attribute by that name
if not, attempt to import a submodule with that name and then check the imported module again for that attribute
if the attribute is not found,
ImportError
is raised.otherwise, a reference to that value is stored in the local namespace, using the name in the
as
clause if it is present, otherwise using the attribute name
Examples:
import foo # foo imported and bound locally
import foo.bar.baz # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally
import foo.bar.baz as fbb # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as fbb
from foo.bar import baz # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as baz
from foo import attr # foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr
If the list of identifiers is replaced by a star ('*'
), all public
names defined in the module are bound in the local namespace for the scope
where the import
statement occurs.
The public names defined by a module are determined by checking the module’s
namespace for a variable named __all__
; if defined, it must be a sequence
of strings which are names defined or imported by that module. The names
given in __all__
are all considered public and are required to exist. If
__all__
is not defined, the set of public names includes all names found
in the module’s namespace which do not begin with an underscore character
('_'
). __all__
should contain the entire public API. It is intended
to avoid accidentally exporting items that are not part of the API (such as
library modules which were imported and used within the module).
The wild card form of import — from module import *
— is only allowed at
the module level. Attempting to use it in class or function definitions will
raise a SyntaxError
.
When specifying what module to import you do not have to specify the absolute
name of the module. When a module or package is contained within another
package it is possible to make a relative import within the same top package
without having to mention the package name. By using leading dots in the
specified module or package after from
you can specify how high to
traverse up the current package hierarchy without specifying exact names. One
leading dot means the current package where the module making the import
exists. Two dots means up one package level. Three dots is up two levels, etc.
So if you execute from . import mod
from a module in the pkg
package
then you will end up importing pkg.mod
. If you execute from ..subpkg2
import mod
from within pkg.subpkg1
you will import pkg.subpkg2.mod
.
The specification for relative imports is contained in
the Package Relative Imports section.
importlib.import_module()
is provided to support applications that
determine dynamically the modules to be loaded.
Raises an auditing event import
with arguments module
, filename
, sys.path
, sys.meta_path
, sys.path_hooks
.
7.11.1. Future statements¶
A future statement is a directive to the compiler that a particular module should be compiled using syntax or semantics that will be available in a specified future release of Python where the feature becomes standard.
The future statement is intended to ease migration to future versions of Python that introduce incompatible changes to the language. It allows use of the new features on a per-module basis before the release in which the feature becomes standard.
future_stmt ::= "from" "__future__" "import"feature
["as"identifier
] (","feature
["as"identifier
])* | "from" "__future__" "import" "("feature
["as"identifier
] (","feature
["as"identifier
])* [","] ")" feature ::=identifier
A future statement must appear near the top of the module. The only lines that can appear before a future statement are:
the module docstring (if any),
comments,
blank lines, and
other future statements.
The only feature that requires using the future statement is
annotations
(see PEP 563).
All historical features enabled by the future statement are still recognized
by Python 3. The list includes absolute_import
, division
,
generators
, generator_stop
, unicode_literals
,
print_function
, nested_scopes
and with_statement
. They are
all redundant because they are always enabled, and only kept for
backwards compatibility.
A future statement is recognized and treated specially at compile time: Changes to the semantics of core constructs are often implemented by generating different code. It may even be the case that a new feature introduces new incompatible syntax (such as a new reserved word), in which case the compiler may need to parse the module differently. Such decisions cannot be pushed off until runtime.
For any given release, the compiler knows which feature names have been defined, and raises a compile-time error if a future statement contains a feature not known to it.
The direct runtime semantics are the same as for any import statement: there is
a standard module __future__
, described later, and it will be imported in
the usual way at the time the future statement is executed.
The interesting runtime semantics depend on the specific feature enabled by the future statement.
Note that there is nothing special about the statement:
import __future__ [as name]
That is not a future statement; it’s an ordinary import statement with no special semantics or syntax restrictions.
Code compiled by calls to the built-in functions exec()
and compile()
that occur in a module M
containing a future statement will, by default,
use the new syntax or semantics associated with the future statement. This can
be controlled by optional arguments to compile()
— see the documentation
of that function for details.
A future statement typed at an interactive interpreter prompt will take effect
for the rest of the interpreter session. If an interpreter is started with the
-i
option, is passed a script name to execute, and the script includes
a future statement, it will be in effect in the interactive session started
after the script is executed.
Zobacz także
- PEP 236 - Back to the __future__
The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.
7.12. The global
statement¶
global_stmt ::= "global"identifier
(","identifier
)*
The global
statement is a declaration which holds for the entire
current code block. It means that the listed identifiers are to be interpreted
as globals. It would be impossible to assign to a global variable without
global
, although free variables may refer to globals without being
declared global.
Names listed in a global
statement must not be used in the same code
block textually preceding that global
statement.
Names listed in a global
statement must not be defined as formal
parameters or in a for
loop control target, class
definition, function definition, import
statement, or variable
annotation.
CPython implementation detail: The current implementation does not enforce some of these restrictions, but programs should not abuse this freedom, as future implementations may enforce them or silently change the meaning of the program.
Programmer’s note: global
is a directive to the parser. It
applies only to code parsed at the same time as the global
statement.
In particular, a global
statement contained in a string or code
object supplied to the built-in exec()
function does not affect the code
block containing the function call, and code contained in such a string is
unaffected by global
statements in the code containing the function
call. The same applies to the eval()
and compile()
functions.
7.13. The nonlocal
statement¶
nonlocal_stmt ::= "nonlocal"identifier
(","identifier
)*
The nonlocal
statement causes the listed identifiers to refer to
previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing scope excluding globals.
This is important because the default behavior for binding is to search the
local namespace first. The statement allows encapsulated code to rebind
variables outside of the local scope besides the global (module) scope.
Names listed in a nonlocal
statement, unlike those listed in a
global
statement, must refer to pre-existing bindings in an
enclosing scope (the scope in which a new binding should be created cannot
be determined unambiguously).
Names listed in a nonlocal
statement must not collide with
pre-existing bindings in the local scope.