# 7. Simple statements

A simple statement is comprised within a single logical line. Several simple statements may occur on a single line separated by semicolons. The syntax for simple statements is:

    simple_stmt ::=  expression_stmt
                     | assert_stmt
                     | assignment_stmt
                     | augmented_assignment_stmt
                     | annotated_assignment_stmt
                     | pass_stmt
                     | del_stmt
                     | return_stmt
                     | yield_stmt
                     | raise_stmt
                     | break_stmt
                     | continue_stmt
                     | import_stmt
                     | future_stmt
                     | global_stmt
                     | nonlocal_stmt

## 7.1. Expression statements

Expression statements are used (mostly interactively) to compute and write a value, or (usually) to call a procedure (a function that returns no meaningful result; in Python, procedures return the value `None`). Other uses of expression statements are allowed and occasionally useful. The syntax for an expression statement is:

    expression_stmt ::=  starred_expression

An expression statement evaluates the expression list (which may be a single expression).

In interactive mode, if the value is not `None`, it is converted to a string using the built-in `repr()` function and the resulting string is written to standard output on a line by itself (except if the result is `None`, so that procedure calls do not cause any output.)

## 7.2. Assignment statements

Assignment statements are used to (re)bind names to values and to modify attributes or items of mutable objects:

    assignment_stmt ::=  (target_list "=")+ (starred_expression | yield_expression)
    target_list     ::=  target ("," target)* [","]
    target          ::=  identifier
                         | "(" [target_list] ")"
                         | "[" [target_list] "]"
                         | attributeref
                         | subscription
                         | slicing
                         | "*" target

(See section Primaries for the syntax definitions for attributeref, subscription, and slicing.)

An assignment statement evaluates the expression list (remember that this can be a single expression or a comma-separated list, the latter yielding a tuple) and assigns the single resulting object to each of the target lists, from left to right.

Assignment is defined recursively depending on the form of the target (list). When a target is part of a mutable object (an attribute reference, subscription or slicing), the mutable object must ultimately perform the assignment and decide about its validity, and may raise an exception if the assignment is unacceptable. The rules observed by various types and the exceptions raised are given with the definition of the object types (see section The standard type hierarchy).

Assignment of an object to a target list, optionally enclosed in parentheses or square brackets, is recursively defined as follows.

- 如果目标列表为后面不带逗号、可以包含于圆括号内的单一目标，则将对象赋值给该目标。

- Else: The object must be an iterable with the same number of items as there are targets in the target list, and the items are assigned, from left to right, to the corresponding targets.

  - If the target list contains one target prefixed with an asterisk, called a "starred" target: The object must be an iterable with at least as many items as there are targets in the target list, minus one. The first items of the iterable are assigned, from left to right, to the targets before the starred target. The final items of the iterable are assigned to the targets after the starred target. A list of the remaining items in the iterable is then assigned to the starred target (the list can be empty).

  - Else: The object must be an iterable with the same number of items as there are targets in the target list, and the items are assigned, from left to right, to the corresponding targets.

Assignment of an object to a single target is recursively defined as follows.

- If the target is an identifier (name):

  - If the name does not occur in a `global` or `nonlocal` statement in the current code block: the name is bound to the object in the current local namespace.

  - Otherwise: the name is bound to the object in the global namespace or the outer namespace determined by `nonlocal`, respectively.

  The name is rebound if it was already bound. This may cause the reference count for the object previously bound to the name to reach zero, causing the object to be deallocated and its destructor (if it has one) to be called.

- If the target is an attribute reference: The primary expression in the reference is evaluated. It should yield an object with assignable attributes; if this is not the case, `TypeError` is raised. That object is then asked to assign the assigned object to the given attribute; if it cannot perform the assignment, it raises an exception (usually but not necessarily `AttributeError`).

  Note: If the object is a class instance and the attribute reference occurs on both sides of the assignment operator, the right-hand side expression, `a.x` can access either an instance attribute or (if no instance attribute exists) a class attribute. The left-hand side target `a.x` is always set as an instance attribute, creating it if necessary. Thus, the two occurrences of `a.x` do not necessarily refer to the same attribute: if the right-hand side expression refers to a class attribute, the left-hand side creates a new instance attribute as the target of the assignment:

      class Cls:
          x = 3             # class variable
      inst = Cls()
      inst.x = inst.x + 1   # writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3

  This description does not necessarily apply to descriptor attributes, such as properties created with `property()`.

- If the target is a subscription: The primary expression in the reference is evaluated. It should yield either a mutable sequence object (such as a list) or a mapping object (such as a dictionary). Next, the subscript expression is evaluated.

  If the primary is a mutable sequence object (such as a list), the subscript must yield an integer. If it is negative, the sequence's length is added to it. The resulting value must be a nonnegative integer less than the sequence's length, and the sequence is asked to assign the assigned object to its item with that index. If the index is out of range, `IndexError` is raised (assignment to a subscripted sequence cannot add new items to a list).

  If the primary is a mapping object (such as a dictionary), the subscript must have a type compatible with the mapping's key type, and the mapping is then asked to create a key/datum pair which maps the subscript to the assigned object. This can either replace an existing key/value pair with the same key value, or insert a new key/value pair (if no key with the same value existed).

  For user-defined objects, the `__setitem__()` method is called with appropriate arguments.

- If the target is a slicing: The primary expression in the reference is evaluated. It should yield a mutable sequence object (such as a list). The assigned object should be a sequence object of the same type. Next, the lower and upper bound expressions are evaluated, insofar they are present; defaults are zero and the sequence's length. The bounds should evaluate to integers. If either bound is negative, the sequence's length is added to it. The resulting bounds are clipped to lie between zero and the sequence's length, inclusive. Finally, the sequence object is asked to replace the slice with the items of the assigned sequence. The length of the slice may be different from the length of the assigned sequence, thus changing the length of the target sequence, if the target sequence allows it.

CPython implementation detail: In the current implementation, the syntax for targets is taken to be the same as for expressions, and invalid syntax is rejected during the code generation phase, causing less detailed error messages.

Although the definition of assignment implies that overlaps between the left-hand side and the right-hand side are 'simultaneous' (for example `a, b = b, a` swaps two variables), overlaps within the collection of assigned-to variables occur left-to-right, sometimes resulting in confusion. For instance, the following program prints `[0, 2]`:

    x = [0, 1]
    i = 0
    i, x[i] = 1, 2         # i is updated, then x[i] is updated
    print(x)

也參考

PEP 3132 - Extended Iterable Unpacking

  The specification for the `*target` feature.

### 7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements

Augmented assignment is the combination, in a single statement, of a binary operation and an assignment statement:

    augmented_assignment_stmt ::=  augtarget augop (expression_list | yield_expression)
    augtarget                 ::=  identifier | attributeref | subscription | slicing
    augop                     ::=  "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "@=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "**="
                                   | ">>=" | "<<=" | "&=" | "^=" | "|="

(See section Primaries for the syntax definitions of the last three symbols.)

An augmented assignment evaluates the target (which, unlike normal assignment statements, cannot be an unpacking) and the expression list, performs the binary operation specific to the type of assignment on the two operands, and assigns the result to the original target. The target is only evaluated once.

An augmented assignment expression like `x += 1` can be rewritten as `x = x + 1` to achieve a similar, but not exactly equal effect. In the augmented version, `x` is only evaluated once. Also, when possible, the actual operation is performed in-place, meaning that rather than creating a new object and assigning that to the target, the old object is modified instead.

Unlike normal assignments, augmented assignments evaluate the left-hand side before evaluating the right-hand side. For example, `a[i] += f(x)` first looks-up `a[i]`, then it evaluates `f(x)` and performs the addition, and lastly, it writes the result back to `a[i]`.

With the exception of assigning to tuples and multiple targets in a single statement, the assignment done by augmented assignment statements is handled the same way as normal assignments. Similarly, with the exception of the possible in-place behavior, the binary operation performed by augmented assignment is the same as the normal binary operations.

For targets which are attribute references, the same caveat about class and instance attributes applies as for regular assignments.

### 7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements

标注 赋值就是在单个语句中将变量或属性标注和可选的赋值语句合为一体:

    annotated_assignment_stmt ::=  augtarget ":" expression
                                   ["=" (starred_expression | yield_expression)]

The difference from normal Assignment statements is that only single target is allowed.

For simple names as assignment targets, if in class or module scope, the annotations are evaluated and stored in a special class or module attribute `__annotations__` that is a dictionary mapping from variable names (mangled if private) to evaluated annotations. This attribute is writable and is automatically created at the start of class or module body execution, if annotations are found statically.

For expressions as assignment targets, the annotations are evaluated if in class or module scope, but not stored.

If a name is annotated in a function scope, then this name is local for that scope. Annotations are never evaluated and stored in function scopes.

If the right hand side is present, an annotated assignment performs the actual assignment before evaluating annotations (where applicable). If the right hand side is not present for an expression target, then the interpreter evaluates the target except for the last `__setitem__()` or `__setattr__()` call.

也參考

PEP 526 - Syntax for Variable Annotations

  The proposal that added syntax for annotating the types of variables (including class variables and instance variables), instead of expressing them through comments.

PEP 484 - Type hints

  The proposal that added the `typing` module to provide a standard syntax for type annotations that can be used in static analysis tools and IDEs.

3.8 版更變: Now annotated assignments allow same expressions in the right hand side as the regular assignments. Previously, some expressions (like un-parenthesized tuple expressions) caused a syntax error.

## 7.3. `assert` 语句

Assert statements are a convenient way to insert debugging assertions into a program:

    assert_stmt ::=  "assert" expression ["," expression]

The simple form, `assert expression`, is equivalent to

    if __debug__:
        if not expression: raise AssertionError

The extended form, `assert expression1, expression2`, is equivalent to

    if __debug__:
        if not expression1: raise AssertionError(expression2)

以上等价形式假定 `__debug__` 和 `AssertionError` 指向具有指定名称的内置变量。 在当前实现中，内置变量 `__debug__` 在正常情况下为 `True`，在请求优化时为 `False` (对应命令行选项为 `-O`)。 如果在编译时请求优化，当前代码生成器不会为 assert 语句发出任何代码。 请注意不必在错误信息中包含失败表达式的源代码；它会被作为栈追踪的一部分被显示。

Assignments to `__debug__` are illegal. The value for the built-in variable is determined when the interpreter starts.

## 7.4. `pass` 语句

    pass_stmt ::=  "pass"

`pass` is a null operation --- when it is executed, nothing happens. It is useful as a placeholder when a statement is required syntactically, but no code needs to be executed, for example:

    def f(arg): pass    # a function that does nothing (yet)

    class C: pass       # a class with no methods (yet)

## 7.5. `del` 语句

    del_stmt ::=  "del" target_list

Deletion is recursively defined very similar to the way assignment is defined. Rather than spelling it out in full details, here are some hints.

Deletion of a target list recursively deletes each target, from left to right.

Deletion of a name removes the binding of that name from the local or global namespace, depending on whether the name occurs in a `global` statement in the same code block. If the name is unbound, a `NameError` exception will be raised.

Deletion of attribute references, subscriptions and slicings is passed to the primary object involved; deletion of a slicing is in general equivalent to assignment of an empty slice of the right type (but even this is determined by the sliced object).

3.2 版更變: Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block.

## 7.6. `return` 语句

    return_stmt ::=  "return" [expression_list]

`return` may only occur syntactically nested in a function definition, not within a nested class definition.

If an expression list is present, it is evaluated, else `None` is substituted.

`return` leaves the current function call with the expression list (or `None`) as return value.

当 `return` 将控制流传出一个带有 `finally` 子句的 `try` 语句时，该 `finally` 子句会先被执行然后再真正离开该函数。

In a generator function, the `return` statement indicates that the generator is done and will cause `StopIteration` to be raised. The returned value (if any) is used as an argument to construct `StopIteration` and becomes the `StopIteration.value` attribute.

在一个异步生成器函数中，一个空的 `return` 语句表示异步生成器已完成并将导致 `StopAsyncIteration` 被引发。 一个非空的 `return` 语句在异步生成器函数中会导致语法错误。

## 7.7. `yield` 语句

    yield_stmt ::=  yield_expression

A `yield` statement is semantically equivalent to a yield expression. The yield statement can be used to omit the parentheses that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield expression statement. For example, the yield statements

    yield <expr>
    yield from <expr>

are equivalent to the yield expression statements

    (yield <expr>)
    (yield from <expr>)

Yield expressions and statements are only used when defining a generator function, and are only used in the body of the generator function. Using yield in a function definition is sufficient to cause that definition to create a generator function instead of a normal function.

For full details of `yield` semantics, refer to the Yield expressions section.

## 7.8. `raise` 语句

    raise_stmt ::=  "raise" [expression ["from" expression]]

If no expressions are present, `raise` re-raises the last exception that was active in the current scope. If no exception is active in the current scope, a `RuntimeError` exception is raised indicating that this is an error.

Otherwise, `raise` evaluates the first expression as the exception object. It must be either a subclass or an instance of `BaseException`. If it is a class, the exception instance will be obtained when needed by instantiating the class with no arguments.

The type of the exception is the exception instance's class, the value is the instance itself.

A traceback object is normally created automatically when an exception is raised and attached to it as the `__traceback__` attribute, which is writable. You can create an exception and set your own traceback in one step using the `with_traceback()` exception method (which returns the same exception instance, with its traceback set to its argument), like so:

    raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)

The `from` clause is used for exception chaining: if given, the second expression must be another exception class or instance, which will then be attached to the raised exception as the `__cause__` attribute (which is writable). If the raised exception is not handled, both exceptions will be printed:

    >>> try:
    ...     print(1 / 0)
    ... except Exception as exc:
    ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
    ...
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

    The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    RuntimeError: Something bad happened

A similar mechanism works implicitly if an exception is raised inside an exception handler or a `finally` clause: the previous exception is then attached as the new exception's `__context__` attribute:

    >>> try:
    ...     print(1 / 0)
    ... except:
    ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
    ...
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

    During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Exception chaining can be explicitly suppressed by specifying `None` in the `from` clause:

    >>> try:
    ...     print(1 / 0)
    ... except:
    ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from None
    ...
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Additional information on exceptions can be found in section Exceptions, and information about handling exceptions is in section try 语句.

3.3 版更變: `None` is now permitted as `Y` in `raise X from Y`.

3.3 版新加入: The `__suppress_context__` attribute to suppress automatic display of the exception context.

## 7.9. `break` 语句

    break_stmt ::=  "break"

`break` may only occur syntactically nested in a `for` or `while` loop, but not nested in a function or class definition within that loop.

它会终结最近的外层循环，如果循环有可选的 `else` 子句，也会跳过该子句。

If a `for` loop is terminated by `break`, the loop control target keeps its current value.

当 `break` 将控制流传出一个带有 `finally` 子句的 `try` 语句时，该 `finally` 子句会先被执行然后再真正离开该循环。

## 7.10. `continue` 语句

    continue_stmt ::=  "continue"

`continue` may only occur syntactically nested in a `for` or `while` loop, but not nested in a function or class definition within that loop. It continues with the next cycle of the nearest enclosing loop.

当 `continue` 将控制流传出一个带有 `finally` 子句的 `try` 语句时，该 `finally` 子句会先被执行然后再真正开始循环的下一个轮次。

## 7.11. `import` 语句

    import_stmt     ::=  "import" module ["as" identifier] ("," module ["as" identifier])*
                         | "from" relative_module "import" identifier ["as" identifier]
                         ("," identifier ["as" identifier])*
                         | "from" relative_module "import" "(" identifier ["as" identifier]
                         ("," identifier ["as" identifier])* [","] ")"
                         | "from" module "import" "*"
    module          ::=  (identifier ".")* identifier
    relative_module ::=  "."* module | "."+

The basic import statement (no `from` clause) is executed in two steps:

1. find a module, loading and initializing it if necessary

2. define a name or names in the local namespace for the scope where the `import` statement occurs.

When the statement contains multiple clauses (separated by commas) the two steps are carried out separately for each clause, just as though the clauses had been separated out into individual import statements.

The details of the first step, finding and loading modules are described in greater detail in the section on the import system, which also describes the various types of packages and modules that can be imported, as well as all the hooks that can be used to customize the import system. Note that failures in this step may indicate either that the module could not be located, or that an error occurred while initializing the module, which includes execution of the module's code.

If the requested module is retrieved successfully, it will be made available in the local namespace in one of three ways:

- 如果模块名称之后带有 `as`，则跟在 `as` 之后的名称将直接绑定到所导入的模块。

- If no other name is specified, and the module being imported is a top level module, the module's name is bound in the local namespace as a reference to the imported module

- If the module being imported is not a top level module, then the name of the top level package that contains the module is bound in the local namespace as a reference to the top level package. The imported module must be accessed using its full qualified name rather than directly

The `from` form uses a slightly more complex process:

1. find the module specified in the `from` clause, loading and initializing it if necessary;

2. for each of the identifiers specified in the `import` clauses:

   1. check if the imported module has an attribute by that name

   2. if not, attempt to import a submodule with that name and then check the imported module again for that attribute

   3. if the attribute is not found, `ImportError` is raised.

   4. 否则的话，将对该值的引用存入局部命名空间，如果有 `as` 子句则使用其指定的名称，否则使用该属性的名称

Examples:

    import foo                 # foo imported and bound locally
    import foo.bar.baz         # foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally
    import foo.bar.baz as fbb  # foo.bar.baz imported and bound as fbb
    from foo.bar import baz    # foo.bar.baz imported and bound as baz
    from foo import attr       # foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr

If the list of identifiers is replaced by a star (`'*'`), all public names defined in the module are bound in the local namespace for the scope where the `import` statement occurs.

The public names defined by a module are determined by checking the module's namespace for a variable named `__all__`; if defined, it must be a sequence of strings which are names defined or imported by that module. The names given in `__all__` are all considered public and are required to exist. If `__all__` is not defined, the set of public names includes all names found in the module's namespace which do not begin with an underscore character (`'_'`). `__all__` should contain the entire public API. It is intended to avoid accidentally exporting items that are not part of the API (such as library modules which were imported and used within the module).

The wild card form of import --- `from module import *` --- is only allowed at the module level. Attempting to use it in class or function definitions will raise a `SyntaxError`.

当指定要导入哪个模块时，你不必指定模块的绝对名称。 当一个模块或包被包含在另一个包之中时，可以在同一个最高层级包中进行相对导入，而不必提及包名称。 通过在 `from` 之后指定的模块或包中使用前缀点号，你可以在不指定确切名称的情况下指明在当前包层级结构中要上溯多少级。 一个前缀点号表示是执行导入的模块所在的当前包，两个点号表示上溯一个包层级。 三个点号表示上溯两级，依此类推。 因此如果你执行 `from . import mod` 时所处位置为 `pkg` 包内的一个模块，则最终你将导入 `pkg.mod`。 如果你执行 `from ..subpkg2 import mod` 时所处位置为 `pkg.subpkg1` 则你将导入 `pkg.subpkg2.mod`。 有关相对导入的规范说明包含在 包相对导入 一节中。

`importlib.import_module()` is provided to support applications that determine dynamically the modules to be loaded.

### 7.11.1. Future statements

A future statement is a directive to the compiler that a particular module should be compiled using syntax or semantics that will be available in a specified future release of Python where the feature becomes standard.

The future statement is intended to ease migration to future versions of Python that introduce incompatible changes to the language. It allows use of the new features on a per-module basis before the release in which the feature becomes standard.

    future_stmt ::=  "from" "__future__" "import" feature ["as" identifier]
                     ("," feature ["as" identifier])*
                     | "from" "__future__" "import" "(" feature ["as" identifier]
                     ("," feature ["as" identifier])* [","] ")"
    feature     ::=  identifier

A future statement must appear near the top of the module. The only lines that can appear before a future statement are:

- the module docstring (if any),

- comments,

- blank lines, and

- other future statements.

The only feature in Python 3.7 that requires using the future statement is `annotations`.

All historical features enabled by the future statement are still recognized by Python 3. The list includes `absolute_import`, `division`, `generators`, `generator_stop`, `unicode_literals`, `print_function`, `nested_scopes` and `with_statement`. They are all redundant because they are always enabled, and only kept for backwards compatibility.

A future statement is recognized and treated specially at compile time: Changes to the semantics of core constructs are often implemented by generating different code. It may even be the case that a new feature introduces new incompatible syntax (such as a new reserved word), in which case the compiler may need to parse the module differently. Such decisions cannot be pushed off until runtime.

For any given release, the compiler knows which feature names have been defined, and raises a compile-time error if a future statement contains a feature not known to it.

The direct runtime semantics are the same as for any import statement: there is a standard module `__future__`, described later, and it will be imported in the usual way at the time the future statement is executed.

The interesting runtime semantics depend on the specific feature enabled by the future statement.

Note that there is nothing special about the statement:

    import __future__ [as name]

That is not a future statement; it's an ordinary import statement with no special semantics or syntax restrictions.

Code compiled by calls to the built-in functions `exec()` and `compile()` that occur in a module `M` containing a future statement will, by default, use the new syntax or semantics associated with the future statement. This can be controlled by optional arguments to `compile()` --- see the documentation of that function for details.

A future statement typed at an interactive interpreter prompt will take effect for the rest of the interpreter session. If an interpreter is started with the `-i` option, is passed a script name to execute, and the script includes a future statement, it will be in effect in the interactive session started after the script is executed.

也參考

PEP 236 - Back to the __future__

  The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.

## 7.12. `global` 语句

    global_stmt ::=  "global" identifier ("," identifier)*

`global` 语句是作用于整个当前代码块的声明。 它意味着所列出的标识符将被解读为全局变量。 要给全局变量赋值不可能不用到 `global` 关键字，不过自由变量也可以指向全局变量而不必声明为全局变量。

在 `global` 语句中列出的名称不得在同一代码块内该 `global` 语句之前的位置中使用。

Names listed in a `global` statement must not be defined as formal parameters or in a `for` loop control target, `class` definition, function definition, `import` statement, or variable annotation.

CPython implementation detail: The current implementation does not enforce some of these restrictions, but programs should not abuse this freedom, as future implementations may enforce them or silently change the meaning of the program.

程序员注意事项: `global` 是对解析器的指令。 它仅对与 `global` 语句同时被解析的代码起作用。 特别地，包含在提供给内置 `exec()` 函数字符串或代码对象中的 `global` 语句并不会影响 包含 该函数调用的代码块，而包含在这种字符串中的代码也不会受到包含该函数调用的代码中的 `global` 语句影响。 这同样适用于 `eval()` 和 `compile()` 函数。

## 7.13. `nonlocal` 语句

    nonlocal_stmt ::=  "nonlocal" identifier ("," identifier)*

The `nonlocal` statement causes the listed identifiers to refer to previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing scope excluding globals. This is important because the default behavior for binding is to search the local namespace first. The statement allows encapsulated code to rebind variables outside of the local scope besides the global (module) scope.

Names listed in a `nonlocal` statement, unlike those listed in a `global` statement, must refer to pre-existing bindings in an enclosing scope (the scope in which a new binding should be created cannot be determined unambiguously).

Names listed in a `nonlocal` statement must not collide with pre-existing bindings in the local scope.

也參考

PEP 3104 - Access to Names in Outer Scopes

  The specification for the `nonlocal` statement.