4. 深入了解流程控制

Besides the while statement just introduced, Python uses the usual flow control statements known from other languages, with some twists.

4.1. if Statements

或許最常見的陳述式種類就是 if 了。舉例來說：

>>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
Please enter an integer: 42
>>> if x < 0:
...     x = 0
...     print('Negative changed to zero')
... elif x == 0:
...     print('Zero')
... elif x == 1:
...     print('Single')
... else:
...     print('More')
...
More

There can be zero or more elif parts, and the else part is optional. The keyword 'elif' is short for 'else if', and is useful to avoid excessive indentation. An if ... elif ... elif ... sequence is a substitute for the switch or case statements found in other languages.

4.2. for Statements

The for statement in Python differs a bit from what you may be used to in C or Pascal. Rather than always iterating over an arithmetic progression of numbers (like in Pascal), or giving the user the ability to define both the iteration step and halting condition (as C), Python's for statement iterates over the items of any sequence (a list or a string), in the order that they appear in the sequence. For example (no pun intended):

>>> # Measure some strings:
... words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
>>> for w in words:
...     print(w, len(w))
...
cat 3
window 6
defenestrate 12

如果你在迴圈中需要修改一個你正在疊代的序列（例如重複一些選擇的元素），那麼會建議你先建立一個序列的拷貝。疊代序列並不暗示建立新的拷貝。此時 slice 語法就讓這件事十分容易完成：

>>> for w in words[:]:  # Loop over a slice copy of the entire list.
...     if len(w) > 6:
...         words.insert(0, w)
...
>>> words
['defenestrate', 'cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']

在 for w in words: 的情況，這個例子會試著重覆不斷地插入 defenestrate，產生一個無限長的 list。

4.3. range() 函式

如果你需要疊代一個數列的話，使用內建 range() 函式就很方便。它可以生成一等差級數：

>>> for i in range(5):
...     print(i)
...
0
1
2
3
4

給定的結束值永遠不會出現在生成的序列中；range(10) 生成的 10 個數值，即對應存取一個長度為 10 的序列內每一個元素的索引值。也可以讓 range 從其他數值計數，或者給定不同的級距（甚至為負；有時稱之為 step）：

range(5, 10)
   5, 6, 7, 8, 9

range(0, 10, 3)
   0, 3, 6, 9

range(-10, -100, -30)
  -10, -40, -70

欲疊代一個序列的索引值，你可以搭配使用 range() 和 len() 如下：

>>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']
>>> for i in range(len(a)):
...     print(i, a[i])
...
0 Mary
1 had
2 a
3 little
4 lamb

然而，在多數的情況，使用 enumerate() 函式將更為方便，詳見迴圈技巧。

如果直接印出一個 range 則會出現奇怪的輸出：

>>> print(range(10))
range(0, 10)

在很多情況下，由 range() 回傳的物件的行為如同一個 list，但實際上它並不是。它是一個物件在你疊代時會回傳想要的序列的連續元素，並不會真正建出這個序列的 list，以節省空間。

我們稱這樣的物件為 iterable（可疊代的），意即能作為函式、陳述式中能一直獲取連續元素直到用盡的部件。我們已經看過 for 陳述式可做為如此的 iterator（疊代器）。list() 函式為另一個例子，他可以自 iterable（可疊代物件）建立 list：

>>> list(range(5))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

待會我們可以看到更多函式回傳 iterable 和接受 iterable 為引數。

4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops

break 陳述，如同 C 語言，終止包含其最內部的 for 或 while 迴圈。

Loop statements may have an else clause; it is executed when the loop terminates through exhaustion of the list (with for) or when the condition becomes false (with while), but not when the loop is terminated by a break statement. This is exemplified by the following loop, which searches for prime numbers:

>>> for n in range(2, 10):
...     for x in range(2, n):
...         if n % x == 0:
...             print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
...             break
...     else:
...         # loop fell through without finding a factor
...         print(n, 'is a prime number')
...
2 is a prime number
3 is a prime number
4 equals 2 * 2
5 is a prime number
6 equals 2 * 3
7 is a prime number
8 equals 2 * 4
9 equals 3 * 3

（沒錯，這是正確的程式碼。請看仔細：else 段落屬於 for 迴圈，並非 if 陳述。）

When used with a loop, the else clause has more in common with the else clause of a try statement than it does that of if statements: a try statement's else clause runs when no exception occurs, and a loop's else clause runs when no break occurs. For more on the try statement and exceptions, see 處理例外.

continue 陳述，亦承襲於 C 語言，讓所屬的迴圈繼續執行下個疊代：

>>> for num in range(2, 10):
...     if num % 2 == 0:
...         print("Found an even number", num)
...         continue
...     print("Found a number", num)
Found an even number 2
Found a number 3
Found an even number 4
Found a number 5
Found an even number 6
Found a number 7
Found an even number 8
Found a number 9

4.5. pass Statements

pass 陳述不執行任何動作。它用在語法上需要一個陳述但不需要執行任何動作的時候。例如：

>>> while True:
...     pass  # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
...

這經常用於定義一個最簡單的類別：

>>> class MyEmptyClass:
...     pass
...

Another place pass can be used is as a place-holder for a function or conditional body when you are working on new code, allowing you to keep thinking at a more abstract level. The pass is silently ignored:

>>> def initlog(*args):
...     pass   # Remember to implement this!
...

4.6. 定義函式 (function)

我們可以建立一個函式來產生費式數列到任何一個上界：

>>> def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series up to n
...     """Print a Fibonacci series up to n."""
...     a, b = 0, 1
...     while a < n:
...         print(a, end=' ')
...         a, b = b, a+b
...     print()
...
>>> # Now call the function we just defined:
... fib(2000)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

關鍵字 def 帶入一個函式的定義。它之後必須連著該函式的名稱和置於括號之中的參數。自下一行起，所有縮排的陳述成為該函式的主體。

一個函式的第一個陳述可以是一個字串值；此情況該字串值被視為該函式的說明文件字串，即 docstring。（關於 docstring 的細節請參見說明文件字串段落。）有些工具可以使用 docstring 來自動產生線上或可列印的文件，或讓使用者能自由地自原始碼中瀏覽文件。在原始碼中加入 docstring 是個好慣例，應該養成這樣的習慣。

The execution of a function introduces a new symbol table used for the local variables of the function. More precisely, all variable assignments in a function store the value in the local symbol table; whereas variable references first look in the local symbol table, then in the local symbol tables of enclosing functions, then in the global symbol table, and finally in the table of built-in names. Thus, global variables and variables of enclosing functions cannot be directly assigned a value within a function (unless, for global variables, named in a global statement, or, for variables of enclosing functions, named in a nonlocal statement), although they may be referenced.

在一個函式被呼叫的時候，實際傳入的參數（引數）會被加入至該函數的區域符號表。因此，引數傳入的方式為傳值呼叫 (call by value)（這裡傳遞的「值」永遠是一個物件的參照（reference），而不是該物件的值）。1 當一個函式呼叫別的函式時，在被呼叫的函式中會建立一個新的區域符號表。

一個函式定義會把該函式名稱加入至當前的符號表。該函式名稱的值帶有一個型別，並被直譯器辨識為使用者自定函式（user-defined function）。該值可以被賦予給別的變數名，而該變數也可以被當作函式使用。這即是常見的重新命名方式：

>>> fib
<function fib at 10042ed0>
>>> f = fib
>>> f(100)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

如果你是來自別的語言，你可能不同意 fib 是個函式，而是個程序 (procedure)，因為它並沒有回傳值。實際上，即使一個函式缺少一個 return 陳述，它亦有一個固定的回傳值。這個值為 None（它是一個內建名稱）。在直譯器中單獨使用 None 時，通常不會被顯示。你可以使用 print() 來看到它：

>>> fib(0)
>>> print(fib(0))
None

如果要寫一個函式回傳費式數列的 list 而不是直接印出它，這也很容易：

>>> def fib2(n):  # return Fibonacci series up to n
...     """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n."""
...     result = []
...     a, b = 0, 1
...     while a < n:
...         result.append(a)    # see below
...         a, b = b, a+b
...     return result
...
>>> f100 = fib2(100)    # call it
>>> f100                # write the result
[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

這個例子一樣示範了一些新的 Python 特性：

• The return statement returns with a value from a function. return without an expression argument returns None. Falling off the end of a function also returns None.

• result.append(a) 陳述呼叫了一個 list 物件的 result method（方法）。method 為「屬於」一個物件的函式，命名規則為 obj.methodname，其中 obj 為某個物件（亦可為一表達式），而 methodname 為該 method 的名稱，並由該物件的型別所定義。不同的型別代表不同的 method。不同型別的 method 可以擁有一樣的名稱而不會讓 Python 混淆。（你可以使用 class 定義自己的物件型別和 method，見 Classes）這裡 append() method 定義在 list 物件中；它會加入一個新的元素在該 list 的末端。這個例子等同於 result = result + [a]，但更有效率。

4.7. More on Defining Functions

It is also possible to define functions with a variable number of arguments. There are three forms, which can be combined.

4.7.1. Default Argument Values

The most useful form is to specify a default value for one or more arguments. This creates a function that can be called with fewer arguments than it is defined to allow. For example:

def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):
    while True:
        ok = input(prompt)
        if ok in ('y', 'ye', 'yes'):
            return True
        if ok in ('n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'):
            return False
        retries = retries - 1
        if retries < 0:
            raise ValueError('invalid user response')
        print(reminder)

This function can be called in several ways:

• giving only the mandatory argument: ask_ok('Do you really want to quit?')

• giving one of the optional arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2)

• or even giving all arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2, 'Come on, only yes or no!')

This example also introduces the in keyword. This tests whether or not a sequence contains a certain value.

The default values are evaluated at the point of function definition in the defining scope, so that

i = 5

def f(arg=i):
    print(arg)

i = 6
f()

will print 5.

Important warning: The default value is evaluated only once. This makes a difference when the default is a mutable object such as a list, dictionary, or instances of most classes. For example, the following function accumulates the arguments passed to it on subsequent calls:

def f(a, L=[]):
    L.append(a)
    return L

print(f(1))
print(f(2))
print(f(3))

This will print

[1]
[1, 2]
[1, 2, 3]

If you don't want the default to be shared between subsequent calls, you can write the function like this instead:

def f(a, L=None):
    if L is None:
        L = []
    L.append(a)
    return L

4.7.2. Keyword Arguments

Functions can also be called using keyword arguments of the form kwarg=value. For instance, the following function:

def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):
    print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
    print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.")
    print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
    print("-- It's", state, "!")

accepts one required argument (voltage) and three optional arguments (state, action, and type). This function can be called in any of the following ways:

parrot(1000)                                          # 1 positional argument
parrot(voltage=1000)                                  # 1 keyword argument
parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM')             # 2 keyword arguments
parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000)             # 2 keyword arguments
parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump')         # 3 positional arguments
parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies')  # 1 positional, 1 keyword

but all the following calls would be invalid:

parrot()                     # required argument missing
parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead')  # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument
parrot(110, voltage=220)     # duplicate value for the same argument
parrot(actor='John Cleese')  # unknown keyword argument

In a function call, keyword arguments must follow positional arguments. All the keyword arguments passed must match one of the arguments accepted by the function (e.g. actor is not a valid argument for the parrot function), and their order is not important. This also includes non-optional arguments (e.g. parrot(voltage=1000) is valid too). No argument may receive a value more than once. Here's an example that fails due to this restriction:

>>> def function(a):
...     pass
...
>>> function(0, a=0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: function() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'

When a final formal parameter of the form **name is present, it receives a dictionary (see Mapping Types --- dict) containing all keyword arguments except for those corresponding to a formal parameter. This may be combined with a formal parameter of the form *name (described in the next subsection) which receives a tuple containing the positional arguments beyond the formal parameter list. (*name must occur before **name.) For example, if we define a function like this:

def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):
    print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
    print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
    for arg in arguments:
        print(arg)
    print("-" * 40)
    for kw in keywords:
        print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])

It could be called like this:

cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",
           "It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
           shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
           client="John Cleese",
           sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

and of course it would print:

-- Do you have any Limburger ?
-- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger
It's very runny, sir.
It's really very, VERY runny, sir.
----------------------------------------
shopkeeper : Michael Palin
client : John Cleese
sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch

Note that the order in which the keyword arguments are printed is guaranteed to match the order in which they were provided in the function call.

4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists

Finally, the least frequently used option is to specify that a function can be called with an arbitrary number of arguments. These arguments will be wrapped up in a tuple (see Tuples 和序列 (Sequences)). Before the variable number of arguments, zero or more normal arguments may occur.

def write_multiple_items(file, separator, *args):
    file.write(separator.join(args))

Normally, these variadic arguments will be last in the list of formal parameters, because they scoop up all remaining input arguments that are passed to the function. Any formal parameters which occur after the *args parameter are 'keyword-only' arguments, meaning that they can only be used as keywords rather than positional arguments.

>>> def concat(*args, sep="/"):
...     return sep.join(args)
...
>>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus")
'earth/mars/venus'
>>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus", sep=".")
'earth.mars.venus'

4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists

The reverse situation occurs when the arguments are already in a list or tuple but need to be unpacked for a function call requiring separate positional arguments. For instance, the built-in range() function expects separate start and stop arguments. If they are not available separately, write the function call with the * operator to unpack the arguments out of a list or tuple:

>>> list(range(3, 6))            # normal call with separate arguments
[3, 4, 5]
>>> args = [3, 6]
>>> list(range(*args))            # call with arguments unpacked from a list
[3, 4, 5]

In the same fashion, dictionaries can deliver keyword arguments with the ** operator:

>>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'):
...     print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
...     print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.", end=' ')
...     print("E's", state, "!")
...
>>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
>>> parrot(**d)
-- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised !

4.7.5. Lambda Expressions

Small anonymous functions can be created with the lambda keyword. This function returns the sum of its two arguments: lambda a, b: a+b. Lambda functions can be used wherever function objects are required. They are syntactically restricted to a single expression. Semantically, they are just syntactic sugar for a normal function definition. Like nested function definitions, lambda functions can reference variables from the containing scope:

>>> def make_incrementor(n):
...     return lambda x: x + n
...
>>> f = make_incrementor(42)
>>> f(0)
42
>>> f(1)
43

The above example uses a lambda expression to return a function. Another use is to pass a small function as an argument:

>>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
>>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
>>> pairs
[(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]

4.7.6. 說明文件字串

Here are some conventions about the content and formatting of documentation strings.

The first line should always be a short, concise summary of the object's purpose. For brevity, it should not explicitly state the object's name or type, since these are available by other means (except if the name happens to be a verb describing a function's operation). This line should begin with a capital letter and end with a period.

If there are more lines in the documentation string, the second line should be blank, visually separating the summary from the rest of the description. The following lines should be one or more paragraphs describing the object's calling conventions, its side effects, etc.

The Python parser does not strip indentation from multi-line string literals in Python, so tools that process documentation have to strip indentation if desired. This is done using the following convention. The first non-blank line after the first line of the string determines the amount of indentation for the entire documentation string. (We can't use the first line since it is generally adjacent to the string's opening quotes so its indentation is not apparent in the string literal.) Whitespace "equivalent" to this indentation is then stripped from the start of all lines of the string. Lines that are indented less should not occur, but if they occur all their leading whitespace should be stripped. Equivalence of whitespace should be tested after expansion of tabs (to 8 spaces, normally).

Here is an example of a multi-line docstring:

>>> def my_function():
...     """Do nothing, but document it.
...
...     No, really, it doesn't do anything.
...     """
...     pass
...
>>> print(my_function.__doc__)
Do nothing, but document it.

    No, really, it doesn't do anything.

4.7.7. Function Annotations

Function annotations are completely optional metadata information about the types used by user-defined functions (see PEP 3107 and PEP 484 for more information).

Annotations are stored in the __annotations__ attribute of the function as a dictionary and have no effect on any other part of the function. Parameter annotations are defined by a colon after the parameter name, followed by an expression evaluating to the value of the annotation. Return annotations are defined by a literal ->, followed by an expression, between the parameter list and the colon denoting the end of the def statement. The following example has a positional argument, a keyword argument, and the return value annotated:

>>> def f(ham: str, eggs: str = 'eggs') -> str:
...     print("Annotations:", f.__annotations__)
...     print("Arguments:", ham, eggs)
...     return ham + ' and ' + eggs
...
>>> f('spam')
Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>}
Arguments: spam eggs
'spam and eggs'

4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style

Now that you are about to write longer, more complex pieces of Python, it is a good time to talk about coding style. Most languages can be written (or more concise, formatted) in different styles; some are more readable than others. Making it easy for others to read your code is always a good idea, and adopting a nice coding style helps tremendously for that.

For Python, PEP 8 has emerged as the style guide that most projects adhere to; it promotes a very readable and eye-pleasing coding style. Every Python developer should read it at some point; here are the most important points extracted for you:

• Use 4-space indentation, and no tabs.

  4 spaces are a good compromise between small indentation (allows greater nesting depth) and large indentation (easier to read). Tabs introduce confusion, and are best left out.

• Wrap lines so that they don't exceed 79 characters.

  This helps users with small displays and makes it possible to have several code files side-by-side on larger displays.

• Use blank lines to separate functions and classes, and larger blocks of code inside functions.

• When possible, put comments on a line of their own.

• Use docstrings.

• Use spaces around operators and after commas, but not directly inside bracketing constructs: a = f(1, 2) + g(3, 4).

• Name your classes and functions consistently; the convention is to use UpperCamelCase for classes and lowercase_with_underscores for functions and methods. Always use self as the name for the first method argument (see A First Look at Classes for more on classes and methods).

• Don't use fancy encodings if your code is meant to be used in international environments. Python's default, UTF-8, or even plain ASCII work best in any case.

• Likewise, don't use non-ASCII characters in identifiers if there is only the slightest chance people speaking a different language will read or maintain the code.

註解

1

Actually, call by object reference would be a better description, since if a mutable object is passed, the caller will see any changes the callee makes to it (items inserted into a list).