"types" --- 動態型別建立與內建型別名稱
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**原始碼：**Lib/types.py

======================================================================

This module defines utility functions to assist in dynamic creation of
new types.

It also defines names for some object types that are used by the
standard Python interpreter, but not exposed as builtins like "int" or
"str" are.

Finally, it provides some additional type-related utility classes and
functions that are not fundamental enough to be builtins.


Dynamic Type Creation
=====================

types.new_class(name, bases=(), kwds=None, exec_body=None)

   Creates a class object dynamically using the appropriate metaclass.

   The first three arguments are the components that make up a class
   definition header: the class name, the base classes (in order), the
   keyword arguments (such as "metaclass").

   The *exec_body* argument is a callback that is used to populate the
   freshly created class namespace. It should accept the class
   namespace as its sole argument and update the namespace directly
   with the class contents. If no callback is provided, it has the
   same effect as passing in "lambda ns: None".

   在 3.3 版被加入.

types.prepare_class(name, bases=(), kwds=None)

   Calculates the appropriate metaclass and creates the class
   namespace.

   The arguments are the components that make up a class definition
   header: the class name, the base classes (in order) and the keyword
   arguments (such as "metaclass").

   The return value is a 3-tuple: "metaclass, namespace, kwds"

   *metaclass* is the appropriate metaclass, *namespace* is the
   prepared class namespace and *kwds* is an updated copy of the
   passed in *kwds* argument with any "'metaclass'" entry removed. If
   no *kwds* argument is passed in, this will be an empty dict.

   在 3.3 版被加入.

   在 3.6 版的變更: The default value for the "namespace" element of
   the returned tuple has changed.  Now an insertion-order-preserving
   mapping is used when the metaclass does not have a "__prepare__"
   method.

也參考:

  Metaclasses
     Full details of the class creation process supported by these
     functions

  **PEP 3115** - Metaclasses in Python 3000
     Introduced the "__prepare__" namespace hook

types.resolve_bases(bases)

   Resolve MRO entries dynamically as specified by **PEP 560**.

   This function looks for items in *bases* that are not instances of
   "type", and returns a tuple where each such object that has an
   "__mro_entries__()" method is replaced with an unpacked result of
   calling this method.  If a *bases* item is an instance of "type",
   or it doesn't have an "__mro_entries__()" method, then it is
   included in the return tuple unchanged.

   在 3.7 版被加入.

types.get_original_bases(cls, /)

   Return the tuple of objects originally given as the bases of *cls*
   before the "__mro_entries__()" method has been called on any bases
   (following the mechanisms laid out in **PEP 560**). This is useful
   for introspecting Generics.

   For classes that have an "__orig_bases__" attribute, this function
   returns the value of "cls.__orig_bases__". For classes without the
   "__orig_bases__" attribute, "cls.__bases__" is returned.

   舉例來說：

      from typing import TypeVar, Generic, NamedTuple, TypedDict

      T = TypeVar("T")
      class Foo(Generic[T]): ...
      class Bar(Foo[int], float): ...
      class Baz(list[str]): ...
      Eggs = NamedTuple("Eggs", [("a", int), ("b", str)])
      Spam = TypedDict("Spam", {"a": int, "b": str})

      assert Bar.__bases__ == (Foo, float)
      assert get_original_bases(Bar) == (Foo[int], float)

      assert Baz.__bases__ == (list,)
      assert get_original_bases(Baz) == (list[str],)

      assert Eggs.__bases__ == (tuple,)
      assert get_original_bases(Eggs) == (NamedTuple,)

      assert Spam.__bases__ == (dict,)
      assert get_original_bases(Spam) == (TypedDict,)

      assert int.__bases__ == (object,)
      assert get_original_bases(int) == (object,)

   在 3.12 版被加入.

也參考: **PEP 560** - Core support for typing module and generic types


Standard Interpreter Types
==========================

This module provides names for many of the types that are required to
implement a Python interpreter. It deliberately avoids including some
of the types that arise only incidentally during processing such as
the "listiterator" type.

Typical use of these names is for "isinstance()" or "issubclass()"
checks.

If you instantiate any of these types, note that signatures may vary
between Python versions.

Standard names are defined for the following types:

types.NoneType

   The type of "None".

   在 3.10 版被加入.

types.FunctionType
types.LambdaType

   The type of user-defined functions and functions created by
   "lambda"  expressions.

   引發一個附帶引數 "code" 的稽核事件 "function.__new__"。

   The audit event only occurs for direct instantiation of function
   objects, and is not raised for normal compilation.

types.GeneratorType

   The type of *generator*-iterator objects, created by generator
   functions.

types.CoroutineType

   The type of *coroutine* objects, created by "async def" functions.

   在 3.5 版被加入.

types.AsyncGeneratorType

   The type of *asynchronous generator*-iterator objects, created by
   asynchronous generator functions.

   在 3.6 版被加入.

class types.CodeType(**kwargs)

   The type of code objects such as returned by "compile()".

   引發一個附帶引數 "code"、"filename"、"name"、"argcount"、
   "posonlyargcount"、"kwonlyargcount"、"nlocals"、"stacksize"、
   "flags" 的稽核事件 "code.__new__"。

   Note that the audited arguments may not match the names or
   positions required by the initializer.  The audit event only occurs
   for direct instantiation of code objects, and is not raised for
   normal compilation.

types.CellType

   The type for cell objects: such objects are used as containers for
   a function's *closure variables*.

   在 3.8 版被加入.

types.MethodType

   The type of methods of user-defined class instances.

types.BuiltinFunctionType
types.BuiltinMethodType

   The type of built-in functions like "len()" or "sys.exit()", and
   methods of built-in classes.  (Here, the term "built-in" means
   "written in C".)

types.WrapperDescriptorType

   The type of methods of some built-in data types and base classes
   such as "object.__init__()" or "object.__lt__()".

   在 3.7 版被加入.

types.MethodWrapperType

   The type of *bound* methods of some built-in data types and base
   classes. For example it is the type of "object().__str__".

   在 3.7 版被加入.

types.NotImplementedType

   The type of "NotImplemented".

   在 3.10 版被加入.

types.MethodDescriptorType

   The type of methods of some built-in data types such as
   "str.join()".

   在 3.7 版被加入.

types.ClassMethodDescriptorType

   The type of *unbound* class methods of some built-in data types
   such as "dict.__dict__['fromkeys']".

   在 3.7 版被加入.

class types.ModuleType(name, doc=None)

   The type of *modules*. The constructor takes the name of the module
   to be created and optionally its *docstring*.

   也參考:

     模組物件的文件
        Provides details on the special attributes that can be found
        on instances of "ModuleType".

     "importlib.util.module_from_spec()"
        Modules created using the "ModuleType" constructor are created
        with many of their special attributes unset or set to default
        values. "module_from_spec()" provides a more robust way of
        creating "ModuleType" instances which ensures the various
        attributes are set appropriately.

types.EllipsisType

   The type of "Ellipsis".

   在 3.10 版被加入.

class types.GenericAlias(t_origin, t_args)

   The type of parameterized generics such as "list[int]".

   "t_origin" should be a non-parameterized generic class, such as
   "list", "tuple" or "dict".  "t_args" should be a "tuple" (possibly
   of length 1) of types which parameterize "t_origin":

      >>> from types import GenericAlias

      >>> list[int] == GenericAlias(list, (int,))
      True
      >>> dict[str, int] == GenericAlias(dict, (str, int))
      True

   在 3.9 版被加入.

   在 3.9.2 版的變更: This type can now be subclassed.

   也參考:

     Generic Alias Types
        In-depth documentation on instances of "types.GenericAlias"

     **PEP 585** - Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections
        Introducing the "types.GenericAlias" class

class types.UnionType

   The type of union type expressions.

   在 3.10 版被加入.

   在 3.14 版的變更: This is now an alias for "typing.Union".

class types.TracebackType(tb_next, tb_frame, tb_lasti, tb_lineno)

   The type of traceback objects such as found in
   "sys.exception().__traceback__".

   See the language reference for details of the available attributes
   and operations, and guidance on creating tracebacks dynamically.

types.FrameType

   The type of frame objects such as found in "tb.tb_frame" if "tb" is
   a traceback object.

types.GetSetDescriptorType

   The type of objects defined in extension modules with
   "PyGetSetDef", such as "FrameType.f_locals" or
   "array.array.typecode". This type is used as descriptor for object
   attributes; it has the same purpose as the "property" type, but for
   classes defined in extension modules.

types.MemberDescriptorType

   The type of objects defined in extension modules with
   "PyMemberDef", such as "datetime.timedelta.days".  This type is
   used as descriptor for simple C data members which use standard
   conversion functions; it has the same purpose as the "property"
   type, but for classes defined in extension modules.

   In addition, when a class is defined with a "__slots__" attribute,
   then for each slot, an instance of "MemberDescriptorType" will be
   added as an attribute on the class. This allows the slot to appear
   in the class's "__dict__".

   **CPython 實作細節：** In other implementations of Python, this
   type may be identical to "GetSetDescriptorType".

class types.MappingProxyType(mapping)

   Read-only proxy of a mapping. It provides a dynamic view on the
   mapping's entries, which means that when the mapping changes, the
   view reflects these changes.

   在 3.3 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版的變更: Updated to support the new union ("|") operator
   from **PEP 584**, which simply delegates to the underlying mapping.

   key in proxy

      Return "True" if the underlying mapping has a key *key*, else
      "False".

   proxy[key]

      Return the item of the underlying mapping with key *key*.
      Raises a "KeyError" if *key* is not in the underlying mapping.

   iter(proxy)

      Return an iterator over the keys of the underlying mapping.
      This is a shortcut for "iter(proxy.keys())".

   len(proxy)

      Return the number of items in the underlying mapping.

   copy()

      Return a shallow copy of the underlying mapping.

   get(key[, default])

      Return the value for *key* if *key* is in the underlying
      mapping, else *default*.  If *default* is not given, it defaults
      to "None", so that this method never raises a "KeyError".

   items()

      Return a new view of the underlying mapping's items ("(key,
      value)" pairs).

   keys()

      Return a new view of the underlying mapping's keys.

   values()

      Return a new view of the underlying mapping's values.

   reversed(proxy)

      Return a reverse iterator over the keys of the underlying
      mapping.

      在 3.9 版被加入.

   hash(proxy)

      Return a hash of the underlying mapping.

      在 3.12 版被加入.

class types.CapsuleType

   The type of capsule objects.

   在 3.13 版被加入.


Additional Utility Classes and Functions
========================================

class types.SimpleNamespace

   A simple "object" subclass that provides attribute access to its
   namespace, as well as a meaningful repr.

   Unlike "object", with "SimpleNamespace" you can add and remove
   attributes.

   "SimpleNamespace" objects may be initialized in the same way as
   "dict": either with keyword arguments, with a single positional
   argument, or with both. When initialized with keyword arguments,
   those are directly added to the underlying namespace.
   Alternatively, when initialized with a positional argument, the
   underlying namespace will be updated with key-value pairs from that
   argument (either a mapping object or an *iterable* object producing
   key-value pairs). All such keys must be strings.

   The type is roughly equivalent to the following code:

      class SimpleNamespace:
          def __init__(self, mapping_or_iterable=(), /, **kwargs):
              self.__dict__.update(mapping_or_iterable)
              self.__dict__.update(kwargs)

          def __repr__(self):
              items = (f"{k}={v!r}" for k, v in self.__dict__.items())
              return "{}({})".format(type(self).__name__, ", ".join(items))

          def __eq__(self, other):
              if isinstance(self, SimpleNamespace) and isinstance(other, SimpleNamespace):
                 return self.__dict__ == other.__dict__
              return NotImplemented

   "SimpleNamespace" may be useful as a replacement for "class NS:
   pass". However, for a structured record type use "namedtuple()"
   instead.

   "SimpleNamespace" objects are supported by "copy.replace()".

   在 3.3 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版的變更: Attribute order in the repr changed from
   alphabetical to insertion (like "dict").

   在 3.13 版的變更: Added support for an optional positional
   argument.

types.DynamicClassAttribute(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

   Route attribute access on a class to __getattr__.

   This is a descriptor, used to define attributes that act
   differently when accessed through an instance and through a class.
   Instance access remains normal, but access to an attribute through
   a class will be routed to the class's __getattr__ method; this is
   done by raising AttributeError.

   This allows one to have properties active on an instance, and have
   virtual attributes on the class with the same name (see "enum.Enum"
   for an example).

   在 3.4 版被加入.


Coroutine Utility Functions
===========================

types.coroutine(gen_func)

   This function transforms a *generator* function into a *coroutine
   function* which returns a generator-based coroutine. The generator-
   based coroutine is still a *generator iterator*, but is also
   considered to be a *coroutine* object and is *awaitable*.  However,
   it may not necessarily implement the "__await__()" method.

   If *gen_func* is a generator function, it will be modified in-
   place.

   If *gen_func* is not a generator function, it will be wrapped. If
   it returns an instance of "collections.abc.Generator", the instance
   will be wrapped in an *awaitable* proxy object.  All other types of
   objects will be returned as is.

   在 3.5 版被加入.
