"typing" --- 支援型別提示
*************************

在 3.5 版被加入.

**原始碼：**Lib/typing.py

備註:

  Python runtime 不強制要求函式與變數的型別註釋。他們可以被第三方工具
  使用，如：*型別檢查器*、IDE、linter 等。

======================================================================

此模組提供 runtime 型別提示支援。

動腦筋思考下面的函式：

   def surface_area_of_cube(edge_length: float) -> str:
       return f"The surface area of the cube is {6 * edge_length ** 2}."

函式 "surface_area_of_cube" 需要一個引數且預期是一個 "float" 的實例，
如 "edge_length: float" 所指出的*型別提示*。這個函式預期會回傳一個
"str" 的實例，如 "-> str" 所指出的提示。

儘管型別提示可以是簡單類別，像是 "float" 或 "str"，他們也可以變得更為
複雜。模組 "typing" 提供一組更高階的型別提示詞彙。

新功能會頻繁的新增至 "typing" 模組中。typing_extensions 套件為這些新功
能提供了 backport（向後移植的）版本，提供給舊版本的 Python 使用。

也參考:

  "型別小抄 (Typing cheat sheet)"
     型別提示的快速預覽（發布於 mypy 的文件中）

  mypy 文件的 "型別系統參考資料 (Type System Reference)" 章節
     Python 的加註型別系統是基於 PEPs 進行標準化，所以這個參照
     (reference) 應該在多數 Python 型別檢查器中廣為使用。（某些部分依
     然是特定給 mypy 使用。）

  "Static Typing with Python"
     由社群編寫的跨平台型別檢查器文件 (type-checker-agnostic) 詳細描述
     加註型別系統的功能、實用的加註型別衍伸工具、以及加註型別的最佳實
     踐 (best practice)。


Python 型別系統的技術規範
=========================

The canonical, up-to-date specification of the Python type system can
be found at "Specification for the Python type system".


型別別名
========

一個型別別名被定義來使用 "type" 陳述式，其建立了 "TypeAliasType" 的實
例。在這個範例中，"Vector" 及 "list[float]" 會被當作和靜態型別檢查器一
樣同等對待：

   type Vector = list[float]

   def scale(scalar: float, vector: Vector) -> Vector:
       return [scalar * num for num in vector]

   # passes type checking; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector.
   new_vector = scale(2.0, [1.0, -4.2, 5.4])

型別別名對於簡化複雜的型別簽名 (complex type signature) 非常好用。舉例
來說：

   from collections.abc import Sequence

   type ConnectionOptions = dict[str, str]
   type Address = tuple[str, int]
   type Server = tuple[Address, ConnectionOptions]

   def broadcast_message(message: str, servers: Sequence[Server]) -> None:
       ...

   # The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as
   # being exactly equivalent to this one.
   def broadcast_message(
       message: str,
       servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]]
   ) -> None:
       ...

"type" 陳述式是 Python 3.12 的新功能。為了向後相容性，型別別名可以透過
簡單的賦值來建立：

   Vector = list[float]

或是用 "TypeAlias" 標記，讓它明確的表示這是一個型別別名，而非一般的變
數賦值：

   from typing import TypeAlias

   Vector: TypeAlias = list[float]


NewType
=======

使用 "NewType" 輔助工具 (helper) 建立獨特型別：

   from typing import NewType

   UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
   some_id = UserId(524313)

若它是原本型別的子類別，靜態型別檢查器會將其視為一個新的型別。這對於幫
助擷取邏輯性錯誤非常有用：

   def get_user_name(user_id: UserId) -> str:
       ...

   # passes type checking
   user_a = get_user_name(UserId(42351))

   # fails type checking; an int is not a UserId
   user_b = get_user_name(-1)

你依然可以在對於型別 "UserId" 的變數中執行所有 "int" 的操作。這讓你可
以在預期接受 "int" 的地方傳遞一個 "UserId"，還能預防你意外使用無效的方
法建立一個 "UserId"：

   # 'output' is of type 'int', not 'UserId'
   output = UserId(23413) + UserId(54341)

注意這只會透過靜態型別檢查器強制檢查。在 runtime 中，陳述式
(statement) "Derived = NewType('Derived', Base)" 會使 "Derived" 成為一
個 callable（可呼叫物件），會立即回傳任何你傳遞的引數。這意味著
expression （運算式）"Derived(some_value)" 不會建立一個新的類別或過度
引入原有的函式呼叫。

更精確地說，expression "some_value is Derived(some_value)" 在 runtime
永遠為 true。

這會無法建立一個 "Derived" 的子型別：

   from typing import NewType

   UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

   # Fails at runtime and does not pass type checking
   class AdminUserId(UserId): pass

無論如何，這有辦法基於 '衍生的' "NewType" 建立一個 "NewType"：

   from typing import NewType

   UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

   ProUserId = NewType('ProUserId', UserId)

以及針對 "ProUserId" 的型別檢查會如期運作。

更多細節請見 **PEP 484**。

備註:

  請記得使用型別別名是宣告兩種型別是互相*相等*的。使用 "type Alias =
  Original" 則會讓靜態型別檢查器在任何情況之下將 "Alias" 視為與
  "Original" *完全相等*。這當你想把複雜的型別簽名進行簡化時，非常好用
  。相反的，"NewType" 宣告一個型別會是另外一種型別的子類別。使用
  "Derived = NewType('Derived', Original)" 會使靜態型別檢查器將
  "Derived" 視為 "Original" 的子類別，也意味著一個型別為 "Original" 的
  值，不能被使用在任何預期接收到型別 "Derived" 的值的區域。這當你想用
  最小的 runtime 成本預防邏輯性錯誤而言，非常有用。

在 3.5.2 版被加入.

在 3.10 版的變更: 現在的 "NewType" 比起一個函式更像一個類別。因此，比
起一般的函式，呼叫 "NewType" 需要額外的 runtime 成本。

在 3.11 版的變更: 呼叫 "NewType" 的效能已經恢復與 Python 3.9 相同的水
準。


註釋 callable 物件
==================

函式，或者是其他 *callable* 物件，可以使用 "collections.abc.Callable"
或以棄用的 "typing.Callable" 進行註釋。 "Callable[[int], str]" 象徵為
一個函式，可以接受一個型別為 "int" 的引數，並回傳一個 "str"。

舉例來說：

   from collections.abc import Callable, Awaitable

   def feeder(get_next_item: Callable[[], str]) -> None:
       ...  # Body

   def async_query(on_success: Callable[[int], None],
                   on_error: Callable[[int, Exception], None]) -> None:
       ...  # Body

   async def on_update(value: str) -> None:
       ...  # Body

   callback: Callable[[str], Awaitable[None]] = on_update

使用下標語法 (subscription syntax) 時，必須使用到兩個值，分別為引述串
列以及回傳類別。引數串列必須為一個型別串列："ParamSpec"、"Concatenate"
或是一個刪節號 (ellipsis)。回傳類別必為一個單一類別。

若刪節號文字 "..." 被當作引數串列給定，其指出一個具任何、任意參數列表
的 callable 會被接受：

   def concat(x: str, y: str) -> str:
       return x + y

   x: Callable[..., str]
   x = str     # OK
   x = concat  # Also OK

"Callable" 不如有可變數量引數的函式、"overloaded functions"、或是僅限
關鍵字參數的函式，可以表示複雜簽名。然而，這些簽名可以透過定義一個具有
"__call__()" 方法的 "Protocol" 類別進行表示：

   from collections.abc import Iterable
   from typing import Protocol

   class Combiner(Protocol):
       def __call__(self, *vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]: ...

   def batch_proc(data: Iterable[bytes], cb_results: Combiner) -> bytes:
       for item in data:
           ...

   def good_cb(*vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]:
       ...
   def bad_cb(*vals: bytes, maxitems: int | None) -> list[bytes]:
       ...

   batch_proc([], good_cb)  # OK
   batch_proc([], bad_cb)   # Error! Argument 2 has incompatible type because of
                            # different name and kind in the callback

Callable 物件可以取用其他 callable 當作引數使用，可以透過 "ParamSpec"
指出他們的參數型別是個別獨立的。另外，如果這個 callable 從其他
callable 新增或刪除引數時，將會使用到 "Concatenate" 運算子。他們可以分
別採用 "Callable[ParamSpecVariable, ReturnType]" 以及
"Callable[Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable],
ReturnType]" 的形式。

在 3.10 版的變更: "Callable" 現已支援 "ParamSpec" 以及 "Concatenate"。
請參閱 **PEP 612** 閱讀詳細內容。

也參考: "ParamSpec" 以及 "Concatenate" 的文件中，提供範例如何在 "Callable"
     中使用。


泛型
====

因為關於物件的型別資訊留存在容器之內，且無法使用通用的方式進行靜態推論
(statically inferred)，許多標準函式庫的容器類別支援以下標來表示容器內
預期的元素。

   from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence

   class Employee: ...

   # Sequence[Employee] indicates that all elements in the sequence
   # must be instances of "Employee".
   # Mapping[str, str] indicates that all keys and all values in the mapping
   # must be strings.
   def notify_by_email(employees: Sequence[Employee],
                       overrides: Mapping[str, str]) -> None: ...

泛型函式及類別可以使用型別參數語法 (type parameter syntax) 進行參數化
(parameterize) ：

   from collections.abc import Sequence

   def first[T](l: Sequence[T]) -> T:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "T"
       return l[0]

或是直接使用 "TypeVar" 工廠 (factory)：

   from collections.abc import Sequence
   from typing import TypeVar

   U = TypeVar('U')                  # Declare type variable "U"

   def second(l: Sequence[U]) -> U:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "U"
       return l[1]

在 3.12 版的變更: 在 Python 3.12 中，泛型的語法支援是全新功能。


註釋元組 (tuple)
================

在 Python 大多數的容器當中，加註型別系統認為容器內的所有元素會是相同型
別。舉例來說：

   from collections.abc import Mapping

   # Type checker will infer that all elements in ``x`` are meant to be ints
   x: list[int] = []

   # Type checker error: ``list`` only accepts a single type argument:
   y: list[int, str] = [1, 'foo']

   # Type checker will infer that all keys in ``z`` are meant to be strings,
   # and that all values in ``z`` are meant to be either strings or ints
   z: Mapping[str, str | int] = {}

"list" 只接受一個型別引數，所以型別檢查器可能在上述 "y" 賦值
(assignment) 觸發錯誤。類似的範例，"Mapping" 只接受兩個型別引數：第一
個引數指出 keys（鍵）的型別；第二個引數指出 values（值）的型別。

然而，與其他多數的 Python 容器不同，在慣用的 (idiomatic) Python 程式碼
中，元組可以擁有不完全相同型別的元素是相當常見的。為此，元組在 Python
的加註型別系統中是個特例 (special-cased)。"tuple" 接受*任何數量*的型別
引數：

   # OK: ``x`` is assigned to a tuple of length 1 where the sole element is an int
   x: tuple[int] = (5,)

   # OK: ``y`` is assigned to a tuple of length 2;
   # element 1 is an int, element 2 is a str
   y: tuple[int, str] = (5, "foo")

   # Error: the type annotation indicates a tuple of length 1,
   # but ``z`` has been assigned to a tuple of length 3
   z: tuple[int] = (1, 2, 3)

為了標示一個元組可以為*任意*長度，且所有元素皆是相同型別 "T"，請使用
"tuple[T, ...]" 進行標示。為了標示一個空元組，請使用 "tuple[()]"。單純
使用 "tuple" 作為註釋，會與使用 "tuple[Any, ...]" 是相等的：

   x: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2)
   # These reassignments are OK: ``tuple[int, ...]`` indicates x can be of any length
   x = (1, 2, 3)
   x = ()
   # This reassignment is an error: all elements in ``x`` must be ints
   x = ("foo", "bar")

   # ``y`` can only ever be assigned to an empty tuple
   y: tuple[()] = ()

   z: tuple = ("foo", "bar")
   # These reassignments are OK: plain ``tuple`` is equivalent to ``tuple[Any, ...]``
   z = (1, 2, 3)
   z = ()


類別物件的型別
==============

一個變數被註釋為 "C" 可以接受一個型別為 "C" 的值。相對的，一個變數備註
解為 "type[C]" （或已棄用的 "typing.Type[C]"）可以接受本身為該類別的值
-- 具體來說，他可能會接受 "C" 的*類別物件*。舉例來說：

   a = 3         # Has type ``int``
   b = int       # Has type ``type[int]``
   c = type(a)   # Also has type ``type[int]``

請記得 "type[C]" 是共變 (covariant) 的：

   class User: ...
   class ProUser(User): ...
   class TeamUser(User): ...

   def make_new_user(user_class: type[User]) -> User:
       # ...
       return user_class()

   make_new_user(User)      # OK
   make_new_user(ProUser)   # Also OK: ``type[ProUser]`` is a subtype of ``type[User]``
   make_new_user(TeamUser)  # Still fine
   make_new_user(User())    # Error: expected ``type[User]`` but got ``User``
   make_new_user(int)       # Error: ``type[int]`` is not a subtype of ``type[User]``

"type" 僅有的合法參數是類別、"Any"、型別變數以及這些型別任意組合成的聯
集。舉例來說：

   def new_non_team_user(user_class: type[BasicUser | ProUser]): ...

   new_non_team_user(BasicUser)  # OK
   new_non_team_user(ProUser)    # OK
   new_non_team_user(TeamUser)   # Error: ``type[TeamUser]`` is not a subtype
                                 # of ``type[BasicUser | ProUser]``
   new_non_team_user(User)       # Also an error

"type[Any]" 等價於 "type" ，其為 Python metaclass 階層結構 (hierachy)
。


Annotating generators and coroutines
====================================

A generator can be annotated using the generic type
"Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]". For example:

   def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
       sent = yield 0
       while sent >= 0:
           sent = yield round(sent)
       return 'Done'

Note that unlike many other generic classes in the standard library,
the "SendType" of "Generator" behaves contravariantly, not covariantly
or invariantly.

If your generator will only yield values, set the "SendType" and
"ReturnType" to "None":

   def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
       while True:
           yield start
           start += 1

Alternatively, annotate your generator as having a return type of
either "Iterable[YieldType]" or "Iterator[YieldType]":

   def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
       while True:
           yield start
           start += 1

Async generators are handled in a similar fashion, but don't expect a
"ReturnType" type argument ("AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]"):

   async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
       while True:
           yield start
           start = await increment(start)

As in the synchronous case, "AsyncIterable[YieldType]" and
"AsyncIterator[YieldType]" are available as well:

   async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
       while True:
           yield start
           start = await increment(start)

Coroutines can be annotated using "Coroutine[YieldType, SendType,
ReturnType]". Generic arguments correspond to those of "Generator",
for example:

   from collections.abc import Coroutine
   c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int]  # Some coroutine defined elsewhere
   x = c.send('hi')                   # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str]
   async def bar() -> None:
       y = await c                    # Inferred type of 'y' is int


使用者定義泛型型別
==================

一個使用者定義的類別可以被定義成一個泛型類別。

   from logging import Logger

   class LoggedVar[T]:
       def __init__(self, value: T, name: str, logger: Logger) -> None:
           self.name = name
           self.logger = logger
           self.value = value

       def set(self, new: T) -> None:
           self.log('Set ' + repr(self.value))
           self.value = new

       def get(self) -> T:
           self.log('Get ' + repr(self.value))
           return self.value

       def log(self, message: str) -> None:
           self.logger.info('%s: %s', self.name, message)

這個語法指出類別 "LoggedVar" 透過一個單一的 型別變數 "T" 進行參數化
(parameterised)。這使得 "T" 在類別中有效的成為型別。

泛型類別隱性繼承了 "Generic"。為了相容 Python 3.11 及更早版本，也可以
明確的繼承 "Generic" 並指出是一個泛型類別：

   from typing import TypeVar, Generic

   T = TypeVar('T')

   class LoggedVar(Generic[T]):
       ...

泛型類別有 "__class_getitem__()" 方法，其意味著可以在 runtime 進行參數
化（如下述的 "LoggedVar[int]"）：

   from collections.abc import Iterable

   def zero_all_vars(vars: Iterable[LoggedVar[int]]) -> None:
       for var in vars:
           var.set(0)

一個泛型型別可以有任意數量的型別變數。所有種類的 "TypeVar" 都可以作為
泛型型別的參數：

   from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Sequence

   class WeirdTrio[T, B: Sequence[bytes], S: (int, str)]:
       ...

   OldT = TypeVar('OldT', contravariant=True)
   OldB = TypeVar('OldB', bound=Sequence[bytes], covariant=True)
   OldS = TypeVar('OldS', int, str)

   class OldWeirdTrio(Generic[OldT, OldB, OldS]):
       ...

"Generic" 的每個型別變數引數必不相同。因此以下是無效的：

   from typing import TypeVar, Generic
   ...

   class Pair[M, M]:  # SyntaxError
       ...

   T = TypeVar('T')

   class Pair(Generic[T, T]):   # INVALID
       ...

泛型類別亦可以繼承其他類別：

   from collections.abc import Sized

   class LinkedList[T](Sized):
       ...

當繼承泛型類別時，部份的型別參數可固定：

   from collections.abc import Mapping

   class MyDict[T](Mapping[str, T]):
       ...

在這種情況下 "MyDict" 有一個單一的參數 "T"。

若使用泛型類別卻沒有特指型別參數，則會將每個位置視為 "Any"。在下列的範
例中 "MyIterable" 不是泛型，但隱性繼承了 "Iterable[Any]"：

   from collections.abc import Iterable

   class MyIterable(Iterable): # Same as Iterable[Any]
       ...

使用者定義的泛型型別別名也有支援。例如：

   from collections.abc import Iterable

   type Response[S] = Iterable[S] | int

   # Return type here is same as Iterable[str] | int
   def response(query: str) -> Response[str]:
       ...

   type Vec[T] = Iterable[tuple[T, T]]

   def inproduct[T: (int, float, complex)](v: Vec[T]) -> T: # Same as Iterable[tuple[T, T]]
       return sum(x*y for x, y in v)

為了向後相容性，泛型型別別名可以透過簡單的賦值來建立：

   from collections.abc import Iterable
   from typing import TypeVar

   S = TypeVar("S")
   Response = Iterable[S] | int

在 3.7 版的變更: "Generic" 不再是一個自訂的 metaclass。

在 3.12 版的變更: 在版本 3.12 新增了泛型及型別別名的語法支援。在之前的
版本中，泛型類別必須顯性繼承 "Generic" 或是包含一個型別變數在基底類別
(base) 當中。

使用者定義的參數運算式 (parameter expression) 泛型一樣有支援，透過
"[**P]" 格式的參數規格變數來進行表示。對於上述作為參數規格變數的型別變
數，將持續被型別模組視為一個特定的型別變數。對此，其中一個例外是一個型
別列表可以替代 "ParamSpec"：

   >>> class Z[T, **P]: ...  # T is a TypeVar; P is a ParamSpec
   ...
   >>> Z[int, [dict, float]]
   __main__.Z[int, [dict, float]]

具有 "ParamSpec" 的泛型類別可以透過顯性繼承 "Generic" 進行建立。在這種
情況下，不需要使用 "**"：

   from typing import ParamSpec, Generic

   P = ParamSpec('P')

   class Z(Generic[P]):
       ...

另外一個 "TypeVar" 以及 "ParamSpec" 之間的差異是，基於美觀因素，只有一
個參數規格變數的泛型可以接受如 "X[[Type1, Type2, ...]]" 以及 "X[Type1,
Type2, ...]" 的參數列表。在內部中，後者會被轉換為前者，所以在下方的範
例中為相等的：

   >>> class X[**P]: ...
   ...
   >>> X[int, str]
   __main__.X[[int, str]]
   >>> X[[int, str]]
   __main__.X[[int, str]]

請記得，具有 "ParamSpec" 的泛型在某些情況下替換之後可能不會有正確的
"__parameters__"，因為參數規格主要還是用於靜態型別檢查。

在 3.10 版的變更: "Generic" 現在可以透過參數運算式來進行參數化。詳細內
容請見 "ParamSpec" 以及 **PEP 612**。

一個使用者定義的泛型類別可以將 ABC 作為他們的基底類別，且不會有
metaclass 衝突。泛型的 metaclass 則不支援。參數化泛型的輸出將被存為快
取，而在型別模組中多數的型別皆為 *hashable* 且可以比較相等性。


"Any" 型別
==========

"Any" 是一種特別的型別。一個靜態型別檢查器會將每個型別視為可相容於
"Any" 且 "Any" 也可以相容於每個型別。

這意味著如果在一個為 "Any" 的值上執行任何操作或呼叫方法是可行的，且可
以賦值給任意變數：

   from typing import Any

   a: Any = None
   a = []          # OK
   a = 2           # OK

   s: str = ''
   s = a           # OK

   def foo(item: Any) -> int:
       # Passes type checking; 'item' could be any type,
       # and that type might have a 'bar' method
       item.bar()
       ...

請注意，當賦予型別為 "Any" 的值更精確的型別時，將不會執行任何型別檢查
。舉例來說，靜態型別檢查器不會在 runtime 中，將 "a" 賦值給 "s" 的情況
下回報錯誤，儘管 "s" 是被宣告為型別 "str" 卻接收到 "int" 的值！

另外，所有缺少回傳型別或參數型別的函式將會隱性預設為 "Any"：

   def legacy_parser(text):
       ...
       return data

   # A static type checker will treat the above
   # as having the same signature as:
   def legacy_parser(text: Any) -> Any:
       ...
       return data

當你需要混和動態及靜態的型別程式碼，這個行為允許 "Any" 被當作一個*緊急
出口 (escape hatch)*使用。

"Any" 的行為對比 "object" 的行為。與 "Any" 相似，所有的型別會作為
"object" 的子型別。然而，不像 "Any"，反之不亦然："object" 並*不是*一個
其他型別的子型別。

這意味著當一個值的型別為 "object" 時，型別檢查器會拒絕幾乎所有的操作，
並將賦予這個值到一個特定型別變數（或是當作回傳值使用）視為一個型別錯誤
。舉例來說：

   def hash_a(item: object) -> int:
       # Fails type checking; an object does not have a 'magic' method.
       item.magic()
       ...

   def hash_b(item: Any) -> int:
       # Passes type checking
       item.magic()
       ...

   # Passes type checking, since ints and strs are subclasses of object
   hash_a(42)
   hash_a("foo")

   # Passes type checking, since Any is compatible with all types
   hash_b(42)
   hash_b("foo")

使用 "object" ，將指出在型別安全 (typesafe) 的習慣之下一個值可以為任意
型別。使用 "Any"，將指出這個值是個動態型別。


標稱 (nominal) 子型別 vs 結構子型別
===================================

最初 **PEP 484** 定義 Python 靜態型別系統使用*標稱子型別*。這意味著只
有 "A" 為 "B" 的子類別時，"A" 才被允許使用在預期是類別 "B" 出現的地方
。

這個需求之前也被運用在抽象基底類別，例如 "Iterable"。這種方式的問題在
於，一個類別需要顯式的標記來支援他們，這並不符合 Python 風格，也不像一
個常見的慣用動態型別 Python 程式碼。舉例來說，下列程式碼符合 **PEP
484**：

   from collections.abc import Sized, Iterable, Iterator

   class Bucket(Sized, Iterable[int]):
       ...
       def __len__(self) -> int: ...
       def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

**PEP 544** 可以透過使用上方的程式碼，且在類別定義時不用顯式基底類別解
決這個問題，讓 "Bucket" 被靜態型別檢查器隱性認為是 "Sized" 以及
"Iterable[int]" 兩者的子型別。這就是眾所周知的*結構子型別*（或是靜態鴨
子型別）：

   from collections.abc import Iterator, Iterable

   class Bucket:  # Note: no base classes
       ...
       def __len__(self) -> int: ...
       def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

   def collect(items: Iterable[int]) -> int: ...
   result = collect(Bucket())  # Passes type check

而且，基於一個特別的型別  "Protocol" 建立子型別時，使用者可以定義新的
協定並充份發揮結構子型別的優勢（請見下方範例）。


模組內容
========

模組 "typing" 定義了下列的類別、函式以及裝飾器。


特別型別原語 (primitive)
------------------------


特別型別
~~~~~~~~

這些可以在註釋中做為型別。他們並不支援 "[]" 的下標使用。

typing.Any

   特別型別，指出一個不受約束 (unconstrained) 的型別。

   * 所有型別皆與 "Any" 相容。

   * "Any" 相容於所有型別。

   在 3.11 版的變更: "Any" 可以作為一個基礎類別。這對於在任何地方使用
   鴨子型別或是高度動態的型別，避免型別檢查器的錯誤是非常有用的。

typing.AnyStr

   一個不受約束的型別變數。

   定義：

      AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes)

   "AnyStr" 是對於函式有用的，他可以接受 "str" 或 "bytes" 引數但不可以
   將此兩種混合。

   舉例來說：

      def concat(a: AnyStr, b: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
          return a + b

      concat("foo", "bar")    # OK, output has type 'str'
      concat(b"foo", b"bar")  # OK, output has type 'bytes'
      concat("foo", b"bar")   # Error, cannot mix str and bytes

   請注意，儘管他的名稱相近，"AnyStr" 與 "Any" 型別無關，更不代表是「
   任何字串」的意思。尤其，"AnyStr" 與 "str | bytes" 兩者不同且具有不
   同的使用情境：

      # Invalid use of AnyStr:
      # The type variable is used only once in the function signature,
      # so cannot be "solved" by the type checker
      def greet_bad(cond: bool) -> AnyStr:
          return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

      # The better way of annotating this function:
      def greet_proper(cond: bool) -> str | bytes:
          return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

typing.LiteralString

   特別型別，只包含文本字串。

   任何文本字串都相容於 "LiteralString"，對於另一個 "LiteralString" 亦
   是如此。然而，若是一個型別僅為 "str" 的物件則不相容。一個字串若是透
   過組合多個 "LiteralString" 型別的物件建立，則此字串也可以視為
   "LiteralString"。

   舉例來說：

      def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> None:
          ...

      def caller(arbitrary_string: str, literal_string: LiteralString) -> None:
          run_query("SELECT * FROM students")  # OK
          run_query(literal_string)  # OK
          run_query("SELECT * FROM " + literal_string)  # OK
          run_query(arbitrary_string)  # type checker error
          run_query(  # type checker error
              f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
          )

   "LiteralString" 對於敏感的 API 來說是有用的，其中任意的使用者產生的
   字串可能會產生問題。舉例來說，上面兩個案例中產生的型別檢查器錯誤是
   脆弱的且容易受到 SQL 注入攻擊。

   更多細節請見 **PEP 675**。

   在 3.11 版被加入.

typing.Never
typing.NoReturn

   "Never" 和 "NoReturn" 表示底部型別 (bottom type)，為一個沒有任何成
   員的型別。

   它們可以被用來代表一個不會回傳的函式，像是 "sys.exit()"：

      from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

      def stop() -> Never:
          raise RuntimeError('no way')

   或被用來定義一個不應被呼叫的函式，因為不會有有效的引數，、像是
   "assert_never()"：

      from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

      def never_call_me(arg: Never) -> None:
          pass

      def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
          never_call_me(arg)  # type checker error
          match arg:
              case int():
                  print("It's an int")
              case str():
                  print("It's a str")
              case _:
                  never_call_me(arg)  # OK, arg is of type Never (or NoReturn)

   "Never" 以及 "NoReturn" 在型別系統中具有相同的意義且靜態型別檢查器
   會將兩者視為相等。

   在 3.6.2 版被加入: 新增 "NoReturn"。

   在 3.11 版被加入: 新增 "Never"。

typing.Self

   特別型別，用來表示當前類別之內 (enclosed class)。

   舉例來說：

      from typing import Self, reveal_type

      class Foo:
          def return_self(self) -> Self:
              ...
              return self

      class SubclassOfFoo(Foo): pass

      reveal_type(Foo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "Foo"
      reveal_type(SubclassOfFoo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "SubclassOfFoo"

   這個註釋在語意上相等於下列內容，且形式更為簡潔：

      from typing import TypeVar

      Self = TypeVar("Self", bound="Foo")

      class Foo:
          def return_self(self: Self) -> Self:
              ...
              return self

   一般來說，如果某個東西回傳 "self" 如上方的範例所示，你則應該使用
   "Self" 做為回傳值的註釋。若 "Foo.return_self" 被註釋為回傳 ""Foo""
   ，則型別檢查器應該推論這個從 "SubclassOfFoo.return_self" 回傳的物件
   為 "Foo" 型別，而並非回傳 "SubclassOfFoo" 型別。

   其他常見的使用案例包含：

   * "classmethod" 被用來作為替代的建構函式 (constructor) 並回傳 "cls"
     參數的實例。

   * 註釋一個回傳自己的 "__enter__()" 方法。

   當類別被子類別化時，若方法不保證回傳一個子類別的實例，你不應該使用
   "Self" 作為回傳註釋：

      class Eggs:
          # Self would be an incorrect return annotation here,
          # as the object returned is always an instance of Eggs,
          # even in subclasses
          def returns_eggs(self) -> "Eggs":
              return Eggs()

   更多細節請見 **PEP 673**。

   在 3.11 版被加入.

typing.TypeAlias

   做為明確宣告一個型別別名 的特別註釋。

   舉例來說：

      from typing import TypeAlias

      Factors: TypeAlias = list[int]

   "TypeAlias" 在舊的 Python 版本中特別有用，其註釋別名可以用來進行傳
   遞參照 (forward reference)，因為對於型別檢查器來說，分辨這些別名與
   一般的變數賦值相當困難：

      from typing import Generic, TypeAlias, TypeVar

      T = TypeVar("T")

      # "Box" does not exist yet,
      # so we have to use quotes for the forward reference on Python <3.12.
      # Using ``TypeAlias`` tells the type checker that this is a type alias declaration,
      # not a variable assignment to a string.
      BoxOfStrings: TypeAlias = "Box[str]"

      class Box(Generic[T]):
          @classmethod
          def make_box_of_strings(cls) -> BoxOfStrings: ...

   更多細節請見 **PEP 613**。

   在 3.10 版被加入.

   在 3.12 版之後被棄用: "TypeAlias" 被棄用，請改用 "type" 陳述式來建
   立 "TypeAliasType" 的實例，其自然可以支援傳遞參照的使用。請注意，雖
   然 "TypeAlias" 以及 "TypeAliasType" 提供相似的用途且具有相似的名稱
   ，他們是不同的，且後者不是前者的型別。現在還沒有移除 "TypeAlias" 的
   計畫，但鼓勵使用者們遷移 (migrate) 至 "type" 陳述式。


特別型式
~~~~~~~~

這些在註釋中可以當作型別使用。他們全都支援 "[]" 的下標使用，但每個都具
有獨特的語法。

typing.Union

   聯集型別；"Union[X, Y]" 與 "X | Y" 是相等的，且都意味著 X 或 Y 兩者
   其一。

   為了定義聯集，例如可以使用 "Union[int, str]" 或是使用簡寫
   (shorthand) "int | str"。使用這種簡寫是非常推薦的。詳細請看：

   * 引數必須為型別且必須有至少一個。

   * 聯集中的聯集會是扁平化的 (flattened)，舉例來說：

        Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]

   * 單一引數的聯集會消失不見，舉例來說：

        Union[int] == int  # The constructor actually returns int

   * 多餘的引數會被略過，舉例來說：

        Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str] == int | str

   * 當比較聯集時，引數的順序會被忽略，舉例來說：

        Union[int, str] == Union[str, int]

   * 你不能建立 "Union" 的子類別或是實例。

   * 你不能寫成 "Union[X][Y]"。

   在 3.7 版的變更: 請勿在 runtime 中將顯性子類別從聯集中移除。

   在 3.10 版的變更: 現在可以將聯集寫成 "X | Y"。請見聯集型別運算式。

typing.Optional

   "Optional[X]" 與 "X | None" 是相等的（或是 "Union[X, None]"）。

   請注意，這與具有預設值的選擇性引數 (optional argument) 不是相同的概
   念。一個具有預設值的選擇性引數的型別註釋中不具有 "Optional" 限定符
   (qualifier)，單純的因為它就是選擇性的。舉例來說：

      def foo(arg: int = 0) -> None:
          ...

   另一方面，如果一個顯性的值 "None" 是被允許的，不論引數是不是選擇性
   的，"Optional" 都適用。舉例來說：

      def foo(arg: Optional[int] = None) -> None:
          ...

   在 3.10 版的變更: 現在可以將 Optional 寫成 "X | None"。請見聯集型別
   運算式。

typing.Concatenate

   用於註釋高階函式的特別型式。

   "Concatenate" 可以被用在可呼叫物件與 "ParamSpec" 的接合
   (conjunction) 並註釋一個高階的 Callable 物件可以新增、移除、轉換另
   一個 Callable 物件的參數。使用方法是依照這個格式
   "Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable]"。
   "Concatenate" 目前只在 Callable 物件中第一個引數使用時有效。
   "Concatenate" 的最後一個參數必須為一個 "ParamSpec" 或是刪節號
   ("...")。

   舉例來說，註釋一個為裝飾過後的函式提供 "threading.Lock" 的裝飾器
   "with_lock"，"Concatenate" 可以用於指出 "with_lock" 預期一個
   Callable 物件，該物件可以接受 "Lock" 作為第一引數，並回傳一個具有不
   同型別簽名 Callable 物件。在這種情況下，"ParamSpec" 指出回傳的
   Callable 物件的參數型別會依賴傳遞的 Callable 物件的參數型別：

      from collections.abc import Callable
      from threading import Lock
      from typing import Concatenate

      # Use this lock to ensure that only one thread is executing a function
      # at any time.
      my_lock = Lock()

      def with_lock[**P, R](f: Callable[Concatenate[Lock, P], R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
          '''A type-safe decorator which provides a lock.'''
          def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> R:
              # Provide the lock as the first argument.
              return f(my_lock, *args, **kwargs)
          return inner

      @with_lock
      def sum_threadsafe(lock: Lock, numbers: list[float]) -> float:
          '''Add a list of numbers together in a thread-safe manner.'''
          with lock:
              return sum(numbers)

      # We don't need to pass in the lock ourselves thanks to the decorator.
      sum_threadsafe([1.1, 2.2, 3.3])

   在 3.10 版被加入.

   也參考:

     * **PEP 612** -- 參數技術規範變數

     * "ParamSpec"

     * 註釋 callable 物件

typing.Literal

   特殊型別格式，用於定義「文本型別 (literal type)」。

   "Literal" 可以用於型別檢查器並指出註釋物件具有一個與提供的文本相同
   的值。

   舉例來說：

      def validate_simple(data: Any) -> Literal[True]:  # always returns True
          ...

      type Mode = Literal['r', 'rb', 'w', 'wb']
      def open_helper(file: str, mode: Mode) -> str:
          ...

      open_helper('/some/path', 'r')      # Passes type check
      open_helper('/other/path', 'typo')  # Error in type checker

   "Literal[...]" 不可以進行子類別化。在 runtime 之中，任意的值是允許
   作為 "Literal[...]" 的型別引數，但型別檢查器可能會加強限制。更多有
   關文本型別的詳細資訊請看 **PEP 586**。

   在 3.8 版被加入.

   在 3.9.1 版的變更: "Literal" 現在可以刪除重複 (de-deplicate) 的參數
   。"Literal" 物件的相等性比較不再依照相依性排序。"Literal" 物件現在
   會在相等性比較期間，若任一個其中的參數無法 *hashable* 時，則會引發
   一個 "TypeError" 例外。

typing.ClassVar

   特殊型別建構，用來標記類別變數。

   如同在 **PEP 526** 中的介紹，一個變數註解被包裝在 ClassVar 中時，會
   指出一個給定的屬性 (attribute) 意圖被當作類別變數使用，且不該被設定
   成該類別的實例。使用方法如下：

      class Starship:
          stats: ClassVar[dict[str, int]] = {} # class variable
          damage: int = 10                     # instance variable

   "ClassVar" 只接受型別請不得使用下標。

   "ClassVar" 並不代表該類別本身，而且不應該和 "isinstance()" 或是
   "issubclass()" 一起使用。"ClassVar" 不會改變 Python runtime 的行為
   ，但它可以被第三方的型別檢查器使用。舉例來說，一個型別檢查器可能會
   標記下方的程式碼為一個錯誤：

      enterprise_d = Starship(3000)
      enterprise_d.stats = {} # Error, setting class variable on instance
      Starship.stats = {}     # This is OK

   在 3.5.3 版被加入.

typing.Final

   特殊型別建構，用來指出最終名稱給型別檢查器。

   最終名稱不可以在任何作用域 (scope) 中重新賦值。在類別作用域中宣告的
   最終名稱，不得在子類別中進行覆寫 (override)。

   舉例來說：

      MAX_SIZE: Final = 9000
      MAX_SIZE += 1  # Error reported by type checker

      class Connection:
          TIMEOUT: Final[int] = 10

      class FastConnector(Connection):
          TIMEOUT = 1  # Error reported by type checker

   這些屬性 (property) 不會在 runtime 時進行檢查。更多詳細資訊請看
   **PEP 591**。

   在 3.8 版被加入.

typing.Required

   特殊型別建構，用來標記一個 "TypedDict" 鍵值是必須的。

   主要用於 "total=False" 的 TypedDict。更多細節請見 "TypedDict" 與
   **PEP 655**。

   在 3.11 版被加入.

typing.NotRequired

   特殊型別建構，用來標記一個 "TypedDict" 鍵值是可能消失的。

   更多細節請見 "TypedDict" 與 **PEP 655**。

   在 3.11 版被加入.

typing.Annotated

   Special typing form to add context-specific metadata to an
   annotation.

   Add metadata "x" to a given type "T" by using the annotation
   "Annotated[T, x]". Metadata added using "Annotated" can be used by
   static analysis tools or at runtime. At runtime, the metadata is
   stored in a "__metadata__" attribute.

   If a library or tool encounters an annotation "Annotated[T, x]" and
   has no special logic for the metadata, it should ignore the
   metadata and simply treat the annotation as "T". As such,
   "Annotated" can be useful for code that wants to use annotations
   for purposes outside Python's static typing system.

   Using "Annotated[T, x]" as an annotation still allows for static
   typechecking of "T", as type checkers will simply ignore the
   metadata "x". In this way, "Annotated" differs from the
   "@no_type_check" decorator, which can also be used for adding
   annotations outside the scope of the typing system, but completely
   disables typechecking for a function or class.

   The responsibility of how to interpret the metadata lies with the
   tool or library encountering an "Annotated" annotation. A tool or
   library encountering an "Annotated" type can scan through the
   metadata elements to determine if they are of interest (e.g., using
   "isinstance()").

   Annotated[<type>, <metadata>]

   Here is an example of how you might use "Annotated" to add metadata
   to type annotations if you were doing range analysis:

      @dataclass
      class ValueRange:
          lo: int
          hi: int

      T1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(-10, 5)]
      T2 = Annotated[T1, ValueRange(-20, 3)]

   The first argument to "Annotated" must be a valid type. Multiple
   metadata elements can be supplied as "Annotated" supports variadic
   arguments. The order of the metadata elements is preserved and
   matters for equality checks:

      @dataclass
      class ctype:
           kind: str

      a1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")]
      a2 = Annotated[int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)]

      assert a1 != a2  # Order matters

   It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide whether
   the client is allowed to add multiple metadata elements to one
   annotation and how to merge those annotations.

   Nested "Annotated" types are flattened. The order of the metadata
   elements starts with the innermost annotation:

      assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[
          int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
      ]

   Duplicated metadata elements are not removed:

      assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[
          int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10)
      ]

   "Annotated" can be used with nested and generic aliases:

         @dataclass
         class MaxLen:
             value: int

         type Vec[T] = Annotated[list[tuple[T, T]], MaxLen(10)]

         # When used in a type annotation, a type checker will treat "V" the same as
         # ``Annotated[list[tuple[int, int]], MaxLen(10)]``:
         type V = Vec[int]

   "Annotated" cannot be used with an unpacked "TypeVarTuple":

      type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1] = Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1]  # NOT valid

   where "T1", "T2", ... are "TypeVars". This is invalid as only one
   type should be passed to Annotated.

   By default, "get_type_hints()" strips the metadata from
   annotations. Pass "include_extras=True" to have the metadata
   preserved:

         >>> from typing import Annotated, get_type_hints
         >>> def func(x: Annotated[int, "metadata"]) -> None: pass
         ...
         >>> get_type_hints(func)
         {'x': <class 'int'>, 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}
         >>> get_type_hints(func, include_extras=True)
         {'x': typing.Annotated[int, 'metadata'], 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}

   At runtime, the metadata associated with an "Annotated" type can be
   retrieved via the "__metadata__" attribute:

         >>> from typing import Annotated
         >>> X = Annotated[int, "very", "important", "metadata"]
         >>> X
         typing.Annotated[int, 'very', 'important', 'metadata']
         >>> X.__metadata__
         ('very', 'important', 'metadata')

   If you want to retrieve the original type wrapped by "Annotated",
   use the "__origin__" attribute:

         >>> from typing import Annotated, get_origin
         >>> Password = Annotated[str, "secret"]
         >>> Password.__origin__
         <class 'str'>

   Note that using "get_origin()" will return "Annotated" itself:

         >>> get_origin(Password)
         <class 'typing.Annotated'>

   也參考:

     **PEP 593** - Flexible function and variable annotations
        The PEP introducing "Annotated" to the standard library.

   在 3.9 版被加入.

typing.TypeGuard

   Special typing construct for marking user-defined type guard
   functions.

   "TypeGuard" can be used to annotate the return type of a user-
   defined type guard function.  "TypeGuard" only accepts a single
   type argument. At runtime, functions marked this way should return
   a boolean.

   "TypeGuard" aims to benefit *type narrowing* -- a technique used by
   static type checkers to determine a more precise type of an
   expression within a program's code flow.  Usually type narrowing is
   done by analyzing conditional code flow and applying the narrowing
   to a block of code.  The conditional expression here is sometimes
   referred to as a "type guard":

      def is_str(val: str | float):
          # "isinstance" type guard
          if isinstance(val, str):
              # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``str``
              ...
          else:
              # Else, type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``float``.
              ...

   Sometimes it would be convenient to use a user-defined boolean
   function as a type guard.  Such a function should use
   "TypeGuard[...]" as its return type to alert static type checkers
   to this intention.

   Using  "-> TypeGuard" tells the static type checker that for a
   given function:

   1. The return value is a boolean.

   2. If the return value is "True", the type of its argument is the
      type inside "TypeGuard".

   舉例來說：

      def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> TypeGuard[list[str]]:
          '''Determines whether all objects in the list are strings'''
          return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val)

      def func1(val: list[object]):
          if is_str_list(val):
              # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``list[str]``.
              print(" ".join(val))
          else:
              # Type of ``val`` remains as ``list[object]``.
              print("Not a list of strings!")

   If "is_str_list" is a class or instance method, then the type in
   "TypeGuard" maps to the type of the second parameter (after "cls"
   or "self").

   In short, the form "def foo(arg: TypeA) -> TypeGuard[TypeB]: ...",
   means that if "foo(arg)" returns "True", then "arg" narrows from
   "TypeA" to "TypeB".

   備註:

     "TypeB" need not be a narrower form of "TypeA" -- it can even be
     a wider form. The main reason is to allow for things like
     narrowing "list[object]" to "list[str]" even though the latter is
     not a subtype of the former, since "list" is invariant. The
     responsibility of writing type-safe type guards is left to the
     user.

   "TypeGuard" also works with type variables.  See **PEP 647** for
   more details.

   在 3.10 版被加入.

typing.Unpack

   Typing operator to conceptually mark an object as having been
   unpacked.

   For example, using the unpack operator "*" on a type variable tuple
   is equivalent to using "Unpack" to mark the type variable tuple as
   having been unpacked:

      Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
      tup: tuple[*Ts]
      # Effectively does:
      tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]

   In fact, "Unpack" can be used interchangeably with "*" in the
   context of "typing.TypeVarTuple" and "builtins.tuple" types. You
   might see "Unpack" being used explicitly in older versions of
   Python, where "*" couldn't be used in certain places:

      # In older versions of Python, TypeVarTuple and Unpack
      # are located in the `typing_extensions` backports package.
      from typing_extensions import TypeVarTuple, Unpack

      Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
      tup: tuple[*Ts]         # Syntax error on Python <= 3.10!
      tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]  # Semantically equivalent, and backwards-compatible

   "Unpack" can also be used along with "typing.TypedDict" for typing
   "**kwargs" in a function signature:

      from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

      class Movie(TypedDict):
          name: str
          year: int

      # This function expects two keyword arguments - `name` of type `str`
      # and `year` of type `int`.
      def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

   See **PEP 692** for more details on using "Unpack" for "**kwargs"
   typing.

   在 3.11 版被加入.


Building generic types and type aliases
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

The following classes should not be used directly as annotations.
Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating generic
types and type aliases.

These objects can be created through special syntax (type parameter
lists and the "type" statement). For compatibility with Python 3.11
and earlier, they can also be created without the dedicated syntax, as
documented below.

class typing.Generic

   Abstract base class for generic types.

   A generic type is typically declared by adding a list of type
   parameters after the class name:

      class Mapping[KT, VT]:
          def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
              ...
              # Etc.

   Such a class implicitly inherits from "Generic". The runtime
   semantics of this syntax are discussed in the Language Reference.

   This class can then be used as follows:

      def lookup_name[X, Y](mapping: Mapping[X, Y], key: X, default: Y) -> Y:
          try:
              return mapping[key]
          except KeyError:
              return default

   Here the brackets after the function name indicate a generic
   function.

   For backwards compatibility, generic classes can also be declared
   by explicitly inheriting from "Generic". In this case, the type
   parameters must be declared separately:

      KT = TypeVar('KT')
      VT = TypeVar('VT')

      class Mapping(Generic[KT, VT]):
          def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
              ...
              # Etc.

class typing.TypeVar(name, *constraints, bound=None, covariant=False, contravariant=False, infer_variance=False)

   Type variable.

   The preferred way to construct a type variable is via the dedicated
   syntax for generic functions, generic classes, and generic type
   aliases:

      class Sequence[T]:  # T 是一個 TypeVar
          ...

   This syntax can also be used to create bounded and constrained type
   variables:

      class StrSequence[S: str]:  # S is a TypeVar with a `str` upper bound;
          ...                     # we can say that S is "bounded by `str`"


      class StrOrBytesSequence[A: (str, bytes)]:  # A is a TypeVar constrained to str or bytes
          ...

   However, if desired, reusable type variables can also be
   constructed manually, like so:

      T = TypeVar('T')  # Can be anything
      S = TypeVar('S', bound=str)  # Can be any subtype of str
      A = TypeVar('A', str, bytes)  # Must be exactly str or bytes

   Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type
   checkers.  They serve as the parameters for generic types as well
   as for generic function and type alias definitions. See "Generic"
   for more information on generic types.  Generic functions work as
   follows:

      def repeat[T](x: T, n: int) -> Sequence[T]:
          """Return a list containing n references to x."""
          return [x]*n


      def print_capitalized[S: str](x: S) -> S:
          """Print x capitalized, and return x."""
          print(x.capitalize())
          return x


      def concatenate[A: (str, bytes)](x: A, y: A) -> A:
          """Add two strings or bytes objects together."""
          return x + y

   Note that type variables can be *bounded*, *constrained*, or
   neither, but cannot be both bounded *and* constrained.

   The variance of type variables is inferred by type checkers when
   they are created through the type parameter syntax or when
   "infer_variance=True" is passed. Manually created type variables
   may be explicitly marked covariant or contravariant by passing
   "covariant=True" or "contravariant=True". By default, manually
   created type variables are invariant. See **PEP 484** and **PEP
   695** for more details.

   Bounded type variables and constrained type variables have
   different semantics in several important ways. Using a *bounded*
   type variable means that the "TypeVar" will be solved using the
   most specific type possible:

      x = print_capitalized('a string')
      reveal_type(x)  # revealed type is str

      class StringSubclass(str):
          pass

      y = print_capitalized(StringSubclass('another string'))
      reveal_type(y)  # revealed type is StringSubclass

      z = print_capitalized(45)  # error: int is not a subtype of str

   The upper bound of a type variable can be a concrete type, abstract
   type (ABC or Protocol), or even a union of types:

      # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
      def print_abs[T: SupportsAbs](arg: T) -> None:
          print("Absolute value:", abs(arg))

      U = TypeVar('U', bound=str|bytes)  # Can be any subtype of the union str|bytes
      V = TypeVar('V', bound=SupportsAbs)  # Can be anything with an __abs__ method

   Using a *constrained* type variable, however, means that the
   "TypeVar" can only ever be solved as being exactly one of the
   constraints given:

      a = concatenate('one', 'two')
      reveal_type(a)  # revealed type is str

      b = concatenate(StringSubclass('one'), StringSubclass('two'))
      reveal_type(b)  # revealed type is str, despite StringSubclass being passed in

      c = concatenate('one', b'two')  # error: type variable 'A' can be either str or bytes in a function call, but not both

   At runtime, "isinstance(x, T)" will raise "TypeError".

   __name__

      The name of the type variable.

   __covariant__

      Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as covariant.

   __contravariant__

      Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as
      contravariant.

   __infer_variance__

      Whether the type variable's variance should be inferred by type
      checkers.

      在 3.12 版被加入.

   __bound__

      The upper bound of the type variable, if any.

      在 3.12 版的變更: For type variables created through type
      parameter syntax, the bound is evaluated only when the attribute
      is accessed, not when the type variable is created (see Lazy
      evaluation).

   __constraints__

      A tuple containing the constraints of the type variable, if any.

      在 3.12 版的變更: For type variables created through type
      parameter syntax, the constraints are evaluated only when the
      attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is created
      (see Lazy evaluation).

   在 3.12 版的變更: Type variables can now be declared using the type
   parameter syntax introduced by **PEP 695**. The "infer_variance"
   parameter was added.

class typing.TypeVarTuple(name)

   Type variable tuple. A specialized form of type variable that
   enables *variadic* generics.

   Type variable tuples can be declared in type parameter lists using
   a single asterisk ("*") before the name:

      def move_first_element_to_last[T, *Ts](tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
          return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

   Or by explicitly invoking the "TypeVarTuple" constructor:

      T = TypeVar("T")
      Ts = TypeVarTuple("Ts")

      def move_first_element_to_last(tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
          return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

   A normal type variable enables parameterization with a single type.
   A type variable tuple, in contrast, allows parameterization with an
   *arbitrary* number of types by acting like an *arbitrary* number of
   type variables wrapped in a tuple. For example:

      # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to ()
      # Return value is (1,), which has type tuple[int]
      move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1,))

      # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str,)
      # Return value is ('spam', 1), which has type tuple[str, int]
      move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam'))

      # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str, float)
      # Return value is ('spam', 3.0, 1), which has type tuple[str, float, int]
      move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam', 3.0))

      # This fails to type check (and fails at runtime)
      # because tuple[()] is not compatible with tuple[T, *Ts]
      # (at least one element is required)
      move_first_element_to_last(tup=())

   Note the use of the unpacking operator "*" in "tuple[T, *Ts]".
   Conceptually, you can think of "Ts" as a tuple of type variables
   "(T1, T2, ...)". "tuple[T, *Ts]" would then become "tuple[T, *(T1,
   T2, ...)]", which is equivalent to "tuple[T, T1, T2, ...]". (Note
   that in older versions of Python, you might see this written using
   "Unpack" instead, as "Unpack[Ts]".)

   Type variable tuples must *always* be unpacked. This helps
   distinguish type variable tuples from normal type variables:

      x: Ts          # Not valid
      x: tuple[Ts]   # Not valid
      x: tuple[*Ts]  # The correct way to do it

   Type variable tuples can be used in the same contexts as normal
   type variables. For example, in class definitions, arguments, and
   return types:

      class Array[*Shape]:
          def __getitem__(self, key: tuple[*Shape]) -> float: ...
          def __abs__(self) -> "Array[*Shape]": ...
          def get_shape(self) -> tuple[*Shape]: ...

   Type variable tuples can be happily combined with normal type
   variables:

      class Array[DType, *Shape]:  # This is fine
          pass

      class Array2[*Shape, DType]:  # This would also be fine
          pass

      class Height: ...
      class Width: ...

      float_array_1d: Array[float, Height] = Array()     # Totally fine
      int_array_2d: Array[int, Height, Width] = Array()  # Yup, fine too

   However, note that at most one type variable tuple may appear in a
   single list of type arguments or type parameters:

      x: tuple[*Ts, *Ts]            # Not valid
      class Array[*Shape, *Shape]:  # Not valid
          pass

   Finally, an unpacked type variable tuple can be used as the type
   annotation of "*args":

      def call_soon[*Ts](
          callback: Callable[[*Ts], None],
          *args: *Ts
      ) -> None:
          ...
          callback(*args)

   In contrast to non-unpacked annotations of "*args" - e.g. "*args:
   int", which would specify that *all* arguments are "int" - "*args:
   *Ts" enables reference to the types of the *individual* arguments
   in "*args". Here, this allows us to ensure the types of the "*args"
   passed to "call_soon" match the types of the (positional) arguments
   of "callback".

   See **PEP 646** for more details on type variable tuples.

   __name__

      The name of the type variable tuple.

   在 3.11 版被加入.

   在 3.12 版的變更: Type variable tuples can now be declared using
   the type parameter syntax introduced by **PEP 695**.

class typing.ParamSpec(name, *, bound=None, covariant=False, contravariant=False)

   Parameter specification variable.  A specialized version of type
   variables.

   In type parameter lists, parameter specifications can be declared
   with two asterisks ("**"):

      type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]

   For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, "ParamSpec" objects
   can also be created as follows:

      P = ParamSpec('P')

   Parameter specification variables exist primarily for the benefit
   of static type checkers.  They are used to forward the parameter
   types of one callable to another callable -- a pattern commonly
   found in higher order functions and decorators.  They are only
   valid when used in "Concatenate", or as the first argument to
   "Callable", or as parameters for user-defined Generics.  See
   "Generic" for more information on generic types.

   For example, to add basic logging to a function, one can create a
   decorator "add_logging" to log function calls.  The parameter
   specification variable tells the type checker that the callable
   passed into the decorator and the new callable returned by it have
   inter-dependent type parameters:

      from collections.abc import Callable
      import logging

      def add_logging[T, **P](f: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, T]:
          '''A type-safe decorator to add logging to a function.'''
          def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> T:
              logging.info(f'{f.__name__} was called')
              return f(*args, **kwargs)
          return inner

      @add_logging
      def add_two(x: float, y: float) -> float:
          '''Add two numbers together.'''
          return x + y

   Without "ParamSpec", the simplest way to annotate this previously
   was to use a "TypeVar" with upper bound "Callable[..., Any]".
   However this causes two problems:

   1. The type checker can't type check the "inner" function because
      "*args" and "**kwargs" have to be typed "Any".

   2. "cast()" may be required in the body of the "add_logging"
      decorator when returning the "inner" function, or the static
      type checker must be told to ignore the "return inner".

   args

   kwargs

      Since "ParamSpec" captures both positional and keyword
      parameters, "P.args" and "P.kwargs" can be used to split a
      "ParamSpec" into its components.  "P.args" represents the tuple
      of positional parameters in a given call and should only be used
      to annotate "*args".  "P.kwargs" represents the mapping of
      keyword parameters to their values in a given call, and should
      be only be used to annotate "**kwargs".  Both attributes require
      the annotated parameter to be in scope. At runtime, "P.args" and
      "P.kwargs" are instances respectively of "ParamSpecArgs" and
      "ParamSpecKwargs".

   __name__

      The name of the parameter specification.

   Parameter specification variables created with "covariant=True" or
   "contravariant=True" can be used to declare covariant or
   contravariant generic types.  The "bound" argument is also
   accepted, similar to "TypeVar".  However the actual semantics of
   these keywords are yet to be decided.

   在 3.10 版被加入.

   在 3.12 版的變更: Parameter specifications can now be declared
   using the type parameter syntax introduced by **PEP 695**.

   備註:

     Only parameter specification variables defined in global scope
     can be pickled.

   也參考:

     * **PEP 612** -- 參數技術規範變數

     * "Concatenate"

     * 註釋 callable 物件

typing.ParamSpecArgs
typing.ParamSpecKwargs

   Arguments and keyword arguments attributes of a "ParamSpec". The
   "P.args" attribute of a "ParamSpec" is an instance of
   "ParamSpecArgs", and "P.kwargs" is an instance of
   "ParamSpecKwargs". They are intended for runtime introspection and
   have no special meaning to static type checkers.

   Calling "get_origin()" on either of these objects will return the
   original "ParamSpec":

      >>> from typing import ParamSpec, get_origin
      >>> P = ParamSpec("P")
      >>> get_origin(P.args) is P
      True
      >>> get_origin(P.kwargs) is P
      True

   在 3.10 版被加入.

class typing.TypeAliasType(name, value, *, type_params=())

   The type of type aliases created through the "type" statement.

   舉例來說：

      >>> type Alias = int
      >>> type(Alias)
      <class 'typing.TypeAliasType'>

   在 3.12 版被加入.

   __name__

      The name of the type alias:

         >>> type Alias = int
         >>> Alias.__name__
         'Alias'

   __module__

      The module in which the type alias was defined:

         >>> type Alias = int
         >>> Alias.__module__
         '__main__'

   __type_params__

      The type parameters of the type alias, or an empty tuple if the
      alias is not generic:

         >>> type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]
         >>> ListOrSet.__type_params__
         (T,)
         >>> type NotGeneric = int
         >>> NotGeneric.__type_params__
         ()

   __value__

      The type alias's value. This is lazily evaluated, so names used
      in the definition of the alias are not resolved until the
      "__value__" attribute is accessed:

         >>> type Mutually = Recursive
         >>> type Recursive = Mutually
         >>> Mutually
         Mutually
         >>> Recursive
         Recursive
         >>> Mutually.__value__
         Recursive
         >>> Recursive.__value__
         Mutually


Other special directives
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

These functions and classes should not be used directly as
annotations. Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for
creating and declaring types.

class typing.NamedTuple

   Typed version of "collections.namedtuple()".

   Usage:

      class Employee(NamedTuple):
          name: str
          id: int

   這等價於：

      Employee = collections.namedtuple('Employee', ['name', 'id'])

   To give a field a default value, you can assign to it in the class
   body:

      class Employee(NamedTuple):
          name: str
          id: int = 3

      employee = Employee('Guido')
      assert employee.id == 3

   Fields with a default value must come after any fields without a
   default.

   The resulting class has an extra attribute "__annotations__" giving
   a dict that maps the field names to the field types.  (The field
   names are in the "_fields" attribute and the default values are in
   the "_field_defaults" attribute, both of which are part of the
   "namedtuple()" API.)

   "NamedTuple" subclasses can also have docstrings and methods:

      class Employee(NamedTuple):
          """Represents an employee."""
          name: str
          id: int = 3

          def __repr__(self) -> str:
              return f'<Employee {self.name}, id={self.id}>'

   "NamedTuple" subclasses can be generic:

      class Group[T](NamedTuple):
          key: T
          group: list[T]

   Backward-compatible usage:

      # For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11
      T = TypeVar("T")

      class Group(NamedTuple, Generic[T]):
          key: T
          group: list[T]

      # A functional syntax is also supported
      Employee = NamedTuple('Employee', [('name', str), ('id', int)])

   在 3.6 版的變更: Added support for **PEP 526** variable annotation
   syntax.

   在 3.6.1 版的變更: Added support for default values, methods, and
   docstrings.

   在 3.8 版的變更: The "_field_types" and "__annotations__"
   attributes are now regular dictionaries instead of instances of
   "OrderedDict".

   在 3.9 版的變更: Removed the "_field_types" attribute in favor of
   the more standard "__annotations__" attribute which has the same
   information.

   在 3.11 版的變更: Added support for generic namedtuples.

class typing.NewType(name, tp)

   Helper class to create low-overhead distinct types.

   A "NewType" is considered a distinct type by a typechecker. At
   runtime, however, calling a "NewType" returns its argument
   unchanged.

   Usage:

      UserId = NewType('UserId', int)  # Declare the NewType "UserId"
      first_user = UserId(1)  # "UserId" returns the argument unchanged at runtime

   __module__

      The module in which the new type is defined.

   __name__

      The name of the new type.

   __supertype__

      The type that the new type is based on.

   在 3.5.2 版被加入.

   在 3.10 版的變更: "NewType" is now a class rather than a function.

class typing.Protocol(Generic)

   Base class for protocol classes.

   Protocol classes are defined like this:

      class Proto(Protocol):
          def meth(self) -> int:
              ...

   Such classes are primarily used with static type checkers that
   recognize structural subtyping (static duck-typing), for example:

      class C:
          def meth(self) -> int:
              return 0

      def func(x: Proto) -> int:
          return x.meth()

      func(C())  # Passes static type check

   See **PEP 544** for more details. Protocol classes decorated with
   "runtime_checkable()" (described later) act as simple-minded
   runtime protocols that check only the presence of given attributes,
   ignoring their type signatures.

   Protocol classes can be generic, for example:

      class GenProto[T](Protocol):
          def meth(self) -> T:
              ...

   In code that needs to be compatible with Python 3.11 or older,
   generic Protocols can be written as follows:

      T = TypeVar("T")

      class GenProto(Protocol[T]):
          def meth(self) -> T:
              ...

   在 3.8 版被加入.

@typing.runtime_checkable

   Mark a protocol class as a runtime protocol.

   Such a protocol can be used with "isinstance()" and "issubclass()".
   This raises "TypeError" when applied to a non-protocol class.  This
   allows a simple-minded structural check, very similar to "one trick
   ponies" in "collections.abc" such as "Iterable".  For example:

      @runtime_checkable
      class Closable(Protocol):
          def close(self): ...

      assert isinstance(open('/some/file'), Closable)

      @runtime_checkable
      class Named(Protocol):
          name: str

      import threading
      assert isinstance(threading.Thread(name='Bob'), Named)

   備註:

     "runtime_checkable()" will check only the presence of the
     required methods or attributes, not their type signatures or
     types. For example, "ssl.SSLObject" is a class, therefore it
     passes an "issubclass()" check against Callable. However, the
     "ssl.SSLObject.__init__" method exists only to raise a
     "TypeError" with a more informative message, therefore making it
     impossible to call (instantiate) "ssl.SSLObject".

   備註:

     An "isinstance()" check against a runtime-checkable protocol can
     be surprisingly slow compared to an "isinstance()" check against
     a non-protocol class. Consider using alternative idioms such as
     "hasattr()" calls for structural checks in performance-sensitive
     code.

   在 3.8 版被加入.

   在 3.12 版的變更: The internal implementation of "isinstance()"
   checks against runtime-checkable protocols now uses
   "inspect.getattr_static()" to look up attributes (previously,
   "hasattr()" was used). As a result, some objects which used to be
   considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no longer
   be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice
   versa. Most users are unlikely to be affected by this change.

   在 3.12 版的變更: The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are
   now considered "frozen" at runtime as soon as the class has been
   created. Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable
   protocol will still work, but will have no impact on "isinstance()"
   checks comparing objects to the protocol. See "What's new in Python
   3.12" for more details.

class typing.TypedDict(dict)

   Special construct to add type hints to a dictionary. At runtime it
   is a plain "dict".

   "TypedDict" declares a dictionary type that expects all of its
   instances to have a certain set of keys, where each key is
   associated with a value of a consistent type. This expectation is
   not checked at runtime but is only enforced by type checkers.
   Usage:

      class Point2D(TypedDict):
          x: int
          y: int
          label: str

      a: Point2D = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'label': 'good'}  # OK
      b: Point2D = {'z': 3, 'label': 'bad'}           # Fails type check

      assert Point2D(x=1, y=2, label='first') == dict(x=1, y=2, label='first')

   To allow using this feature with older versions of Python that do
   not support **PEP 526**, "TypedDict" supports two additional
   equivalent syntactic forms:

   * Using a literal "dict" as the second argument:

        Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': str})

   * Using keyword arguments:

        Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', x=int, y=int, label=str)

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13:
     The keyword-argument syntax is deprecated in 3.11 and will be
     removed in 3.13. It may also be unsupported by static type
     checkers.

   This functional syntax allows defining keys which are not valid
   identifiers, for example because they are keywords or contain
   hyphens, or when key names must not be mangled like regular private
   names:

      # raises SyntaxError
      class Point2D(TypedDict):
          in: int  # 'in' is a keyword
          x-y: int  # name with hyphens

      class Definition(TypedDict):
          __schema: str  # mangled to `_Definition__schema`

      # OK, functional syntax
      Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'in': int, 'x-y': int})
      Definition = TypedDict('Definition', {'__schema': str})  # not mangled

   By default, all keys must be present in a "TypedDict". It is
   possible to mark individual keys as non-required using
   "NotRequired":

      class Point2D(TypedDict):
          x: int
          y: int
          label: NotRequired[str]

      # Alternative syntax
      Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': NotRequired[str]})

   This means that a "Point2D" "TypedDict" can have the "label" key
   omitted.

   It is also possible to mark all keys as non-required by default by
   specifying a totality of "False":

      class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
          x: int
          y: int

      # Alternative syntax
      Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int}, total=False)

   This means that a "Point2D" "TypedDict" can have any of the keys
   omitted. A type checker is only expected to support a literal
   "False" or "True" as the value of the "total" argument. "True" is
   the default, and makes all items defined in the class body
   required.

   Individual keys of a "total=False" "TypedDict" can be marked as
   required using "Required":

      class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
          x: Required[int]
          y: Required[int]
          label: str

      # Alternative syntax
      Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {
          'x': Required[int],
          'y': Required[int],
          'label': str
      }, total=False)

   It is possible for a "TypedDict" type to inherit from one or more
   other "TypedDict" types using the class-based syntax. Usage:

      class Point3D(Point2D):
          z: int

   "Point3D" has three items: "x", "y" and "z". It is equivalent to
   this definition:

      class Point3D(TypedDict):
          x: int
          y: int
          z: int

   A "TypedDict" cannot inherit from a non-"TypedDict" class, except
   for "Generic". For example:

      class X(TypedDict):
          x: int

      class Y(TypedDict):
          y: int

      class Z(object): pass  # A non-TypedDict class

      class XY(X, Y): pass  # OK

      class XZ(X, Z): pass  # raises TypeError

   A "TypedDict" can be generic:

      class Group[T](TypedDict):
          key: T
          group: list[T]

   To create a generic "TypedDict" that is compatible with Python 3.11
   or lower, inherit from "Generic" explicitly:

      T = TypeVar("T")

      class Group(TypedDict, Generic[T]):
          key: T
          group: list[T]

   A "TypedDict" can be introspected via annotations dicts (see 註釋
   (annotation) 最佳實踐 for more information on annotations best
   practices), "__total__", "__required_keys__", and
   "__optional_keys__".

   __total__

      "Point2D.__total__" gives the value of the "total" argument.
      Example:

         >>> from typing import TypedDict
         >>> class Point2D(TypedDict): pass
         >>> Point2D.__total__
         True
         >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): pass
         >>> Point2D.__total__
         False
         >>> class Point3D(Point2D): pass
         >>> Point3D.__total__
         True

      This attribute reflects *only* the value of the "total" argument
      to the current "TypedDict" class, not whether the class is
      semantically total. For example, a "TypedDict" with "__total__"
      set to "True" may have keys marked with "NotRequired", or it may
      inherit from another "TypedDict" with "total=False". Therefore,
      it is generally better to use "__required_keys__" and
      "__optional_keys__" for introspection.

   __required_keys__

      在 3.9 版被加入.

   __optional_keys__

      "Point2D.__required_keys__" and "Point2D.__optional_keys__"
      return "frozenset" objects containing required and non-required
      keys, respectively.

      Keys marked with "Required" will always appear in
      "__required_keys__" and keys marked with "NotRequired" will
      always appear in "__optional_keys__".

      For backwards compatibility with Python 3.10 and below, it is
      also possible to use inheritance to declare both required and
      non-required keys in the same "TypedDict" . This is done by
      declaring a "TypedDict" with one value for the "total" argument
      and then inheriting from it in another "TypedDict" with a
      different value for "total":

         >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
         ...     x: int
         ...     y: int
         ...
         >>> class Point3D(Point2D):
         ...     z: int
         ...
         >>> Point3D.__required_keys__ == frozenset({'z'})
         True
         >>> Point3D.__optional_keys__ == frozenset({'x', 'y'})
         True

      在 3.9 版被加入.

      備註:

        If "from __future__ import annotations" is used or if
        annotations are given as strings, annotations are not
        evaluated when the "TypedDict" is defined. Therefore, the
        runtime introspection that "__required_keys__" and
        "__optional_keys__" rely on may not work properly, and the
        values of the attributes may be incorrect.

   See **PEP 589** for more examples and detailed rules of using
   "TypedDict".

   在 3.8 版被加入.

   在 3.11 版的變更: Added support for marking individual keys as
   "Required" or "NotRequired". See **PEP 655**.

   在 3.11 版的變更: Added support for generic "TypedDict"s.


協定
----

The following protocols are provided by the typing module. All are
decorated with "@runtime_checkable".

class typing.SupportsAbs

   An ABC with one abstract method "__abs__" that is covariant in its
   return type.

class typing.SupportsBytes

   一個有抽象方法 "__bytes__" 的 ABC。

class typing.SupportsComplex

   一個有抽象方法 "__complex__" 的 ABC。

class typing.SupportsFloat

   一個有抽象方法 "__float__" 的 ABC。

class typing.SupportsIndex

   一個有抽象方法 "__index__" 的 ABC。

   在 3.8 版被加入.

class typing.SupportsInt

   一個有抽象方法 "__int__" 的 ABC。

class typing.SupportsRound

   An ABC with one abstract method "__round__" that is covariant in
   its return type.


ABCs for working with IO
------------------------

class typing.IO
class typing.TextIO
class typing.BinaryIO

   Generic type "IO[AnyStr]" and its subclasses "TextIO(IO[str])" and
   "BinaryIO(IO[bytes])" represent the types of I/O streams such as
   returned by "open()".


函式與裝飾器
------------

typing.cast(typ, val)

   Cast a value to a type.

   This returns the value unchanged.  To the type checker this signals
   that the return value has the designated type, but at runtime we
   intentionally don't check anything (we want this to be as fast as
   possible).

typing.assert_type(val, typ, /)

   Ask a static type checker to confirm that *val* has an inferred
   type of *typ*.

   At runtime this does nothing: it returns the first argument
   unchanged with no checks or side effects, no matter the actual type
   of the argument.

   When a static type checker encounters a call to "assert_type()", it
   emits an error if the value is not of the specified type:

      def greet(name: str) -> None:
          assert_type(name, str)  # OK, inferred type of `name` is `str`
          assert_type(name, int)  # type checker error

   This function is useful for ensuring the type checker's
   understanding of a script is in line with the developer's
   intentions:

      def complex_function(arg: object):
          # Do some complex type-narrowing logic,
          # after which we hope the inferred type will be `int`
          ...
          # Test whether the type checker correctly understands our function
          assert_type(arg, int)

   在 3.11 版被加入.

typing.assert_never(arg, /)

   Ask a static type checker to confirm that a line of code is
   unreachable.

   舉例來說：

      def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
          match arg:
              case int():
                  print("It's an int")
              case str():
                  print("It's a str")
              case _ as unreachable:
                  assert_never(unreachable)

   Here, the annotations allow the type checker to infer that the last
   case can never execute, because "arg" is either an "int" or a
   "str", and both options are covered by earlier cases.

   If a type checker finds that a call to "assert_never()" is
   reachable, it will emit an error. For example, if the type
   annotation for "arg" was instead "int | str | float", the type
   checker would emit an error pointing out that "unreachable" is of
   type "float". For a call to "assert_never" to pass type checking,
   the inferred type of the argument passed in must be the bottom
   type, "Never", and nothing else.

   At runtime, this throws an exception when called.

   也參考:

     Unreachable Code and Exhaustiveness Checking has more information
     about exhaustiveness checking with static typing.

   在 3.11 版被加入.

typing.reveal_type(obj, /)

   Ask a static type checker to reveal the inferred type of an
   expression.

   When a static type checker encounters a call to this function, it
   emits a diagnostic with the inferred type of the argument. For
   example:

      x: int = 1
      reveal_type(x)  # Revealed type is "builtins.int"

   This can be useful when you want to debug how your type checker
   handles a particular piece of code.

   At runtime, this function prints the runtime type of its argument
   to "sys.stderr" and returns the argument unchanged (allowing the
   call to be used within an expression):

      x = reveal_type(1)  # 印出 "Runtime type is int"
      print(x)  # 印出 "1"

   Note that the runtime type may be different from (more or less
   specific than) the type statically inferred by a type checker.

   Most type checkers support "reveal_type()" anywhere, even if the
   name is not imported from "typing". Importing the name from
   "typing", however, allows your code to run without runtime errors
   and communicates intent more clearly.

   在 3.11 版被加入.

@typing.dataclass_transform(*, eq_default=True, order_default=False, kw_only_default=False, frozen_default=False, field_specifiers=(), **kwargs)

   Decorator to mark an object as providing "dataclass"-like behavior.

   "dataclass_transform" may be used to decorate a class, metaclass,
   or a function that is itself a decorator. The presence of
   "@dataclass_transform()" tells a static type checker that the
   decorated object performs runtime "magic" that transforms a class
   in a similar way to "@dataclasses.dataclass".

   Example usage with a decorator function:

      @dataclass_transform()
      def create_model[T](cls: type[T]) -> type[T]:
          ...
          return cls

      @create_model
      class CustomerModel:
          id: int
          name: str

   On a base class:

      @dataclass_transform()
      class ModelBase: ...

      class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
          id: int
          name: str

   On a metaclass:

      @dataclass_transform()
      class ModelMeta(type): ...

      class ModelBase(metaclass=ModelMeta): ...

      class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
          id: int
          name: str

   The "CustomerModel" classes defined above will be treated by type
   checkers similarly to classes created with
   "@dataclasses.dataclass". For example, type checkers will assume
   these classes have "__init__" methods that accept "id" and "name".

   The decorated class, metaclass, or function may accept the
   following bool arguments which type checkers will assume have the
   same effect as they would have on the "@dataclasses.dataclass"
   decorator: "init", "eq", "order", "unsafe_hash", "frozen",
   "match_args", "kw_only", and "slots". It must be possible for the
   value of these arguments ("True" or "False") to be statically
   evaluated.

   The arguments to the "dataclass_transform" decorator can be used to
   customize the default behaviors of the decorated class, metaclass,
   or function:

   參數:
      * **eq_default** (*bool*) -- Indicates whether the "eq"
        parameter is assumed to be "True" or "False" if it is omitted
        by the caller. Defaults to "True".

      * **order_default** (*bool*) -- Indicates whether the "order"
        parameter is assumed to be "True" or "False" if it is omitted
        by the caller. Defaults to "False".

      * **kw_only_default** (*bool*) -- Indicates whether the
        "kw_only" parameter is assumed to be "True" or "False" if it
        is omitted by the caller. Defaults to "False".

      * **frozen_default** (*bool*) --

        Indicates whether the "frozen" parameter is assumed to be
        "True" or "False" if it is omitted by the caller. Defaults to
        "False".

        在 3.12 版被加入.

      * **field_specifiers** (*tuple**[**Callable**[**...**,
        **Any**]**, **...**]*) -- Specifies a static list of supported
        classes or functions that describe fields, similar to
        "dataclasses.field()". Defaults to "()".

      * ****kwargs** (*Any*) -- Arbitrary other keyword arguments are
        accepted in order to allow for possible future extensions.

   Type checkers recognize the following optional parameters on field
   specifiers:


   **Recognised parameters for field specifiers**
   ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

   +----------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
   | Parameter name       | Description                                                                      |
   |======================|==================================================================================|
   | "init"               | Indicates whether the field should be included in the synthesized "__init__"     |
   |                      | method. If unspecified, "init" defaults to "True".                               |
   +----------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
   | "default"            | Provides the default value for the field.                                        |
   +----------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
   | "default_factory"    | Provides a runtime callback that returns the default value for the field. If     |
   |                      | neither "default" nor "default_factory" are specified, the field is assumed to   |
   |                      | have no default value and must be provided a value when the class is             |
   |                      | instantiated.                                                                    |
   +----------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
   | "factory"            | An alias for the "default_factory" parameter on field specifiers.                |
   +----------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
   | "kw_only"            | Indicates whether the field should be marked as keyword-only. If "True", the     |
   |                      | field will be keyword-only. If "False", it will not be keyword-only. If          |
   |                      | unspecified, the value of the "kw_only" parameter on the object decorated with   |
   |                      | "dataclass_transform" will be used, or if that is unspecified, the value of      |
   |                      | "kw_only_default" on "dataclass_transform" will be used.                         |
   +----------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
   | "alias"              | Provides an alternative name for the field. This alternative name is used in the |
   |                      | synthesized "__init__" method.                                                   |
   +----------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

   At runtime, this decorator records its arguments in the
   "__dataclass_transform__" attribute on the decorated object. It has
   no other runtime effect.

   更多細節請見 **PEP 681**。

   在 3.11 版被加入.

@typing.overload

   Decorator for creating overloaded functions and methods.

   The "@overload" decorator allows describing functions and methods
   that support multiple different combinations of argument types. A
   series of "@overload"-decorated definitions must be followed by
   exactly one non-"@overload"-decorated definition (for the same
   function/method).

   "@overload"-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the type
   checker only, since they will be overwritten by the
   non-"@overload"-decorated definition. The non-"@overload"-decorated
   definition, meanwhile, will be used at runtime but should be
   ignored by a type checker.  At runtime, calling an
   "@overload"-decorated function directly will raise
   "NotImplementedError".

   An example of overload that gives a more precise type than can be
   expressed using a union or a type variable:

      @overload
      def process(response: None) -> None:
          ...
      @overload
      def process(response: int) -> tuple[int, str]:
          ...
      @overload
      def process(response: bytes) -> str:
          ...
      def process(response):
          ...  # actual implementation goes here

   See **PEP 484** for more details and comparison with other typing
   semantics.

   在 3.11 版的變更: Overloaded functions can now be introspected at
   runtime using "get_overloads()".

typing.get_overloads(func)

   Return a sequence of "@overload"-decorated definitions for *func*.

   *func* is the function object for the implementation of the
   overloaded function. For example, given the definition of "process"
   in the documentation for "@overload", "get_overloads(process)" will
   return a sequence of three function objects for the three defined
   overloads. If called on a function with no overloads,
   "get_overloads()" returns an empty sequence.

   "get_overloads()" can be used for introspecting an overloaded
   function at runtime.

   在 3.11 版被加入.

typing.clear_overloads()

   Clear all registered overloads in the internal registry.

   This can be used to reclaim the memory used by the registry.

   在 3.11 版被加入.

@typing.final

   Decorator to indicate final methods and final classes.

   Decorating a method with "@final" indicates to a type checker that
   the method cannot be overridden in a subclass. Decorating a class
   with "@final" indicates that it cannot be subclassed.

   舉例來說：

      class Base:
          @final
          def done(self) -> None:
              ...
      class Sub(Base):
          def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
              ...

      @final
      class Leaf:
          ...
      class Other(Leaf):  # Error reported by type checker
          ...

   這些屬性 (property) 不會在 runtime 時進行檢查。更多詳細資訊請看
   **PEP 591**。

   在 3.8 版被加入.

   在 3.11 版的變更: The decorator will now attempt to set a
   "__final__" attribute to "True" on the decorated object. Thus, a
   check like "if getattr(obj, "__final__", False)" can be used at
   runtime to determine whether an object "obj" has been marked as
   final. If the decorated object does not support setting attributes,
   the decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an
   exception.

@typing.no_type_check

   Decorator to indicate that annotations are not type hints.

   This works as a class or function *decorator*.  With a class, it
   applies recursively to all methods and classes defined in that
   class (but not to methods defined in its superclasses or
   subclasses). Type checkers will ignore all annotations in a
   function or class with this decorator.

   "@no_type_check" mutates the decorated object in place.

@typing.no_type_check_decorator

   Decorator to give another decorator the "no_type_check()" effect.

   This wraps the decorator with something that wraps the decorated
   function in "no_type_check()".

@typing.override

   Decorator to indicate that a method in a subclass is intended to
   override a method or attribute in a superclass.

   Type checkers should emit an error if a method decorated with
   "@override" does not, in fact, override anything. This helps
   prevent bugs that may occur when a base class is changed without an
   equivalent change to a child class.

   舉例來說：

      class Base:
          def log_status(self) -> None:
              ...

      class Sub(Base):
          @override
          def log_status(self) -> None:  # Okay: overrides Base.log_status
              ...

          @override
          def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
              ...

   There is no runtime checking of this property.

   The decorator will attempt to set an "__override__" attribute to
   "True" on the decorated object. Thus, a check like "if getattr(obj,
   "__override__", False)" can be used at runtime to determine whether
   an object "obj" has been marked as an override.  If the decorated
   object does not support setting attributes, the decorator returns
   the object unchanged without raising an exception.

   更多細節請見 **PEP 698**。

   在 3.12 版被加入.

@typing.type_check_only

   Decorator to mark a class or function as unavailable at runtime.

   This decorator is itself not available at runtime. It is mainly
   intended to mark classes that are defined in type stub files if an
   implementation returns an instance of a private class:

      @type_check_only
      class Response:  # private or not available at runtime
          code: int
          def get_header(self, name: str) -> str: ...

      def fetch_response() -> Response: ...

   Note that returning instances of private classes is not
   recommended. It is usually preferable to make such classes public.


Introspection helpers
---------------------

typing.get_type_hints(obj, globalns=None, localns=None, include_extras=False)

   Return a dictionary containing type hints for a function, method,
   module or class object.

   This is often the same as "obj.__annotations__", but this function
   makes the following changes to the annotations dictionary:

   * Forward references encoded as string literals or "ForwardRef"
     objects are handled by evaluating them in *globalns*, *localns*,
     and (where applicable) *obj*'s type parameter namespace. If
     *globalns* or *localns* is not given, appropriate namespace
     dictionaries are inferred from *obj*.

   * "None" is replaced with "types.NoneType".

   * If "@no_type_check" has been applied to *obj*, an empty
     dictionary is returned.

   * If *obj* is a class "C", the function returns a dictionary that
     merges annotations from "C"'s base classes with those on "C"
     directly. This is done by traversing "C.__mro__" and iteratively
     combining "__annotations__" dictionaries. Annotations on classes
     appearing earlier in the *method resolution order* always take
     precedence over annotations on classes appearing later in the
     method resolution order.

   * The function recursively replaces all occurrences of
     "Annotated[T, ...]" with "T", unless *include_extras* is set to
     "True" (see "Annotated" for more information).

   See also "inspect.get_annotations()", a lower-level function that
   returns annotations more directly.

   備註:

     If any forward references in the annotations of *obj* are not
     resolvable or are not valid Python code, this function will raise
     an exception such as "NameError". For example, this can happen
     with imported type aliases that include forward references, or
     with names imported under "if TYPE_CHECKING".

   在 3.9 版的變更: 新增 "include_extras" 參數（如 **PEP 593** 中所述
   ）。更多資訊請見 "Annotated" 的文件。

   在 3.11 版的變更: Previously, "Optional[t]" was added for function
   and method annotations if a default value equal to "None" was set.
   Now the annotation is returned unchanged.

typing.get_origin(tp)

   Get the unsubscripted version of a type: for a typing object of the
   form "X[Y, Z, ...]" return "X".

   If "X" is a typing-module alias for a builtin or "collections"
   class, it will be normalized to the original class. If "X" is an
   instance of "ParamSpecArgs" or "ParamSpecKwargs", return the
   underlying "ParamSpec". Return "None" for unsupported objects.

   舉例：

      assert get_origin(str) is None
      assert get_origin(Dict[str, int]) is dict
      assert get_origin(Union[int, str]) is Union
      assert get_origin(Annotated[str, "metadata"]) is Annotated
      P = ParamSpec('P')
      assert get_origin(P.args) is P
      assert get_origin(P.kwargs) is P

   在 3.8 版被加入.

typing.get_args(tp)

   Get type arguments with all substitutions performed: for a typing
   object of the form "X[Y, Z, ...]" return "(Y, Z, ...)".

   If "X" is a union or "Literal" contained in another generic type,
   the order of "(Y, Z, ...)" may be different from the order of the
   original arguments "[Y, Z, ...]" due to type caching. Return "()"
   for unsupported objects.

   舉例：

      assert get_args(int) == ()
      assert get_args(Dict[int, str]) == (int, str)
      assert get_args(Union[int, str]) == (int, str)

   在 3.8 版被加入.

typing.is_typeddict(tp)

   Check if a type is a "TypedDict".

   舉例來說：

      class Film(TypedDict):
          title: str
          year: int

      assert is_typeddict(Film)
      assert not is_typeddict(list | str)

      # TypedDict is a factory for creating typed dicts,
      # not a typed dict itself
      assert not is_typeddict(TypedDict)

   在 3.10 版被加入.

class typing.ForwardRef

   Class used for internal typing representation of string forward
   references.

   For example, "List["SomeClass"]" is implicitly transformed into
   "List[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]".  "ForwardRef" should not be
   instantiated by a user, but may be used by introspection tools.

   備註:

     **PEP 585** generic types such as "list["SomeClass"]" will not be
     implicitly transformed into "list[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]" and
     thus will not automatically resolve to "list[SomeClass]".

   在 3.7.4 版被加入.


常數
----

typing.TYPE_CHECKING

   A special constant that is assumed to be "True" by 3rd party static
   type checkers. It is "False" at runtime.

   Usage:

      if TYPE_CHECKING:
          import expensive_mod

      def fun(arg: 'expensive_mod.SomeType') -> None:
          local_var: expensive_mod.AnotherType = other_fun()

   The first type annotation must be enclosed in quotes, making it a
   "forward reference", to hide the "expensive_mod" reference from the
   interpreter runtime.  Type annotations for local variables are not
   evaluated, so the second annotation does not need to be enclosed in
   quotes.

   備註:

     If "from __future__ import annotations" is used, annotations are
     not evaluated at function definition time. Instead, they are
     stored as strings in "__annotations__". This makes it unnecessary
     to use quotes around the annotation (see **PEP 563**).

   在 3.5.2 版被加入.


棄用的別名
----------

This module defines several deprecated aliases to pre-existing
standard library classes. These were originally included in the typing
module in order to support parameterizing these generic classes using
"[]". However, the aliases became redundant in Python 3.9 when the
corresponding pre-existing classes were enhanced to support "[]" (see
**PEP 585**).

The redundant types are deprecated as of Python 3.9. However, while
the aliases may be removed at some point, removal of these aliases is
not currently planned. As such, no deprecation warnings are currently
issued by the interpreter for these aliases.

If at some point it is decided to remove these deprecated aliases, a
deprecation warning will be issued by the interpreter for at least two
releases prior to removal. The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the
typing module without deprecation warnings until at least Python 3.14.

Type checkers are encouraged to flag uses of the deprecated types if
the program they are checking targets a minimum Python version of 3.9
or newer.


內建型別的別名
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

class typing.Dict(dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

   棄用 "dict" 的別名。

   Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
   collection type such as "Mapping" rather than to use "dict" or
   "typing.Dict".

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "builtins.dict" now supports subscripting
   ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.List(list, MutableSequence[T])

   棄用 "list" 的別名。

   Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
   collection type such as "Sequence" or "Iterable" rather than to use
   "list" or "typing.List".

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "builtins.list" now supports subscripting
   ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Set(set, MutableSet[T])

   棄用 "builtins.set" 的別名。

   Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
   collection type such as "collections.abc.Set" rather than to use
   "set" or "typing.Set".

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "builtins.set" now supports subscripting
   ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.FrozenSet(frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co])

   棄用 "builtins.frozenset" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "builtins.frozenset" now supports subscripting
   ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

typing.Tuple

   棄用 "tuple" 的別名。

   "tuple" and "Tuple" are special-cased in the type system; see 註釋
   元組 (tuple) for more details.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "builtins.tuple" now supports subscripting
   ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Type(Generic[CT_co])

   棄用 "type" 的別名。

   See 類別物件的型別 for details on using "type" or "typing.Type" in
   type annotations.

   在 3.5.2 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "builtins.type" now supports subscripting
   ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.


"collections" 中型別的別名
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

class typing.DefaultDict(collections.defaultdict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

   棄用 "collections.defaultdict" 的別名。

   在 3.5.2 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.defaultdict" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.OrderedDict(collections.OrderedDict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

   棄用 "collections.OrderedDict" 的別名。

   在 3.7.2 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.OrderedDict" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.ChainMap(collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

   棄用 "collections.ChainMap" 的別名。

   在 3.6.1 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.ChainMap" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Counter(collections.Counter, Dict[T, int])

   棄用 "collections.Counter" 的別名。

   在 3.6.1 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.Counter" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Deque(deque, MutableSequence[T])

   棄用 "collections.deque" 的別名。

   在 3.6.1 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.deque" now supports subscripting
   ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.


Aliases to other concrete types
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

   Deprecated since version 3.8, will be removed in version 3.13: The
   "typing.io" namespace is deprecated and will be removed. These
   types should be directly imported from "typing" instead.

class typing.Pattern
class typing.Match

   Deprecated aliases corresponding to the return types from
   "re.compile()" and "re.match()".

   These types (and the corresponding functions) are generic over
   "AnyStr". "Pattern" can be specialised as "Pattern[str]" or
   "Pattern[bytes]"; "Match" can be specialised as "Match[str]" or
   "Match[bytes]".

   Deprecated since version 3.8, will be removed in version 3.13: The
   "typing.re" namespace is deprecated and will be removed. These
   types should be directly imported from "typing" instead.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: Classes "Pattern" and "Match" from "re" now
   support "[]". See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Text

   棄用 "str" 的別名。

   "Text" is provided to supply a forward compatible path for Python 2
   code: in Python 2, "Text" is an alias for "unicode".

   Use "Text" to indicate that a value must contain a unicode string
   in a manner that is compatible with both Python 2 and Python 3:

      def add_unicode_checkmark(text: Text) -> Text:
          return text + u' \u2713'

   在 3.5.2 版被加入.

   在 3.11 版之後被棄用: Python 2 is no longer supported, and most
   type checkers also no longer support type checking Python 2 code.
   Removal of the alias is not currently planned, but users are
   encouraged to use "str" instead of "Text".


"collections.abc" 中容器 ABC 的別名
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

class typing.AbstractSet(Collection[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Set" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Set" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.ByteString(Sequence[int])

   This type represents the types "bytes", "bytearray", and
   "memoryview" of byte sequences.

   Deprecated since version 3.9, will be removed in version 3.14:
   Prefer "collections.abc.Buffer", or a union like "bytes | bytearray
   | memoryview".

class typing.Collection(Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Collection" 的別名。

   在 3.6 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Collection" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Container(Generic[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Container" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Container" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.ItemsView(MappingView, AbstractSet[tuple[KT_co, VT_co]])

   棄用 "collections.abc.ItemsView" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.ItemsView" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.KeysView(MappingView, AbstractSet[KT_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.KeysView" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.KeysView" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Mapping(Collection[KT], Generic[KT, VT_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Mapping" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Mapping" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.MappingView(Sized)

   棄用 "collections.abc.MappingView" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.MappingView" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.MutableMapping(Mapping[KT, VT])

   棄用 "collections.abc.MutableMapping" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.MutableMapping" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.MutableSequence(Sequence[T])

   棄用 "collections.abc.MutableSequence" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.MutableSequence" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.MutableSet(AbstractSet[T])

   棄用 "collections.abc.MutableSet" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.MutableSet" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Sequence(Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Sequence" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Sequence" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.ValuesView(MappingView, Collection[_VT_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.ValuesView" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.ValuesView" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.


Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in "collections.abc"
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

class typing.Coroutine(Awaitable[ReturnType], Generic[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Coroutine" 的別名。

   See Annotating generators and coroutines for details on using
   "collections.abc.Coroutine" and "typing.Coroutine" in type
   annotations.

   在 3.5.3 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Coroutine" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.AsyncGenerator(AsyncIterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType, SendType])

   棄用 "collections.abc.AsyncGenerator" 的別名。

   See Annotating generators and coroutines for details on using
   "collections.abc.AsyncGenerator" and "typing.AsyncGenerator" in
   type annotations.

   在 3.6.1 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.AsyncGenerator" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.AsyncIterable(Generic[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.AsyncIterable" 的別名。

   在 3.5.2 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.AsyncIterable" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.AsyncIterator(AsyncIterable[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.AsyncIterator" 的別名。

   在 3.5.2 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.AsyncIterator" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Awaitable(Generic[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Awaitable" 的別名。

   在 3.5.2 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Awaitable" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.


Aliases to other ABCs in "collections.abc"
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

class typing.Iterable(Generic[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Iterable" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Iterable" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Iterator(Iterable[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Iterator" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Iterator" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

typing.Callable

   棄用 "collections.abc.Callable" 的別名。

   See 註釋 callable 物件 for details on how to use
   "collections.abc.Callable" and "typing.Callable" in type
   annotations.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Callable" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

   在 3.10 版的變更: "Callable" 現已支援 "ParamSpec" 以及
   "Concatenate"。請參閱 **PEP 612** 閱讀詳細內容。

class typing.Generator(Iterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Generator" 的別名。

   See Annotating generators and coroutines for details on using
   "collections.abc.Generator" and "typing.Generator" in type
   annotations.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Generator" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Hashable

   棄用 "collections.abc.Hashable" 的別名。

   在 3.12 版之後被棄用: 改為直接使用 "collections.abc.Hashable"。

class typing.Reversible(Iterable[T_co])

   棄用 "collections.abc.Reversible" 的別名。

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "collections.abc.Reversible" now supports
   subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.Sized

   棄用 "collections.abc.Sized" 的別名。

   在 3.12 版之後被棄用: 改為直接使用 "collections.abc.Sized"。


"contextlib" ABC 的別名
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

class typing.ContextManager(Generic[T_co])

   Deprecated alias to "contextlib.AbstractContextManager".

   在 3.5.4 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "contextlib.AbstractContextManager" now
   supports subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.

class typing.AsyncContextManager(Generic[T_co])

   Deprecated alias to "contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager".

   在 3.6.2 版被加入.

   在 3.9 版之後被棄用: "contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager" now
   supports subscripting ("[]"). See **PEP 585** and 泛型別名型別.


Deprecation Timeline of Major Features
======================================

Certain features in "typing" are deprecated and may be removed in a
future version of Python. The following table summarizes major
deprecations for your convenience. This is subject to change, and not
all deprecations are listed.

+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
| Feature                   | 棄用於                    | Projected removal         | PEP/issue                 |
|===========================|===========================|===========================|===========================|
| "typing.io" 和            | 3.8                       | 3.13                      | bpo-38291                 |
| "typing.re" 子模組        |                           |                           |                           |
+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
| "typing" versions of      | 3.9                       | Undecided (see 棄用的別名 | **PEP 585**               |
| standard collections      |                           | for more information)     |                           |
+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
| "typing.ByteString"       | 3.9                       | 3.14                      | gh-91896                  |
+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
| "typing.Text"             | 3.11                      | Undecided                 | gh-92332                  |
+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
| "typing.Hashable" 和      | 3.12                      | Undecided                 | gh-94309                  |
| "typing.Sized"            |                           |                           |                           |
+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
| "typing.TypeAlias"        | 3.12                      | Undecided                 | **PEP 695**               |
+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
