# Загальні структури об’єктів

Існує велика кількість структур, які використовуються для визначення типів об’єктів для Python. У цьому розділі описано ці структури та як вони використовуються.

## Базові типи об’єктів і макроси

All Python objects ultimately share a small number of fields at the beginning of the object’s representation in memory. These are represented by the `PyObject` and `PyVarObject` types, which are defined, in turn, by the expansions of some macros also used, whether directly or indirectly, in the definition of all other Python objects. Additional macros can be found under reference counting.

type PyObject
  Part of the Limited API. (Only some members are part of the stable ABI.)

  All object types are extensions of this type. This is a type which contains the information Python needs to treat a pointer to an object as an object. In a normal «release» build, it contains only the object’s reference count and a pointer to the corresponding type object. Nothing is actually declared to be a `PyObject`, but every pointer to a Python object can be cast to a PyObject*.

  The members must not be accessed directly; instead use macros such as `Py_REFCNT` and `Py_TYPE`.

  Py_ssize_t ob_refcnt
    Part of the Stable ABI.

    The object’s reference count, as returned by `Py_REFCNT`. Do not use this field directly; instead use functions and macros such as `Py_REFCNT`, `Py_INCREF()` and `Py_DecRef()`.

    The field type may be different from `Py_ssize_t`, depending on build configuration and platform.

  PyTypeObject *ob_type
    Part of the Stable ABI.

    The object’s type. Do not use this field directly; use `Py_TYPE` and `Py_SET_TYPE()` instead.

type PyVarObject
  Part of the Limited API. (Only some members are part of the stable ABI.)

  An extension of `PyObject` that adds the `ob_size` field. This is intended for objects that have some notion of length.

  As with `PyObject`, the members must not be accessed directly; instead use macros such as `Py_SIZE`, `Py_REFCNT` and `Py_TYPE`.

  Py_ssize_t ob_size
    Part of the Stable ABI.

    A size field, whose contents should be considered an object’s internal implementation detail.

    Do not use this field directly; use `Py_SIZE` instead.

    Object creation functions such as `PyObject_NewVar()` will generally set this field to the requested size (number of items). After creation, arbitrary values can be stored in `ob_size` using `Py_SET_SIZE`.

    To get an object’s publicly exposed length, as returned by the Python function `len()`, use `PyObject_Length()` instead.

PyObject_HEAD

  Це макрос, який використовується під час оголошення нових типів, які представляють об’єкти без змінної довжини. Макрос PyObject_HEAD розширюється до:

      PyObject ob_base;

  Перегляньте документацію `PyObject` вище.

PyObject_VAR_HEAD

  Це макрос, який використовується під час оголошення нових типів, які представляють об’єкти з довжиною, що змінюється від екземпляра до екземпляра. Макрос PyObject_VAR_HEAD розширюється до:

      PyVarObject ob_base;

  Перегляньте документацію `PyVarObject` вище.

PyTypeObject PyBaseObject_Type
  Part of the Stable ABI.

  The base class of all other objects, the same as `object` in Python.

int Py_Is(PyObject *x, PyObject *y)
  Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.10.

  Перевірте, чи є об’єкт x об’єктом y, так само як «x є y» в Python.

  Added in version 3.10.

int Py_IsNone(PyObject *x)
  Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.10.

  Перевірте, чи є об’єкт єдиним елементом `None`, так само як `x is None` у Python.

  Added in version 3.10.

int Py_IsTrue(PyObject *x)
  Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.10.

  Перевірте, чи є об’єкт єдиним елементом `True`, так само, як `x is True` у Python.

  Added in version 3.10.

int Py_IsFalse(PyObject *x)
  Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.10.

  Перевірте, чи є об’єкт синглетом `False`, так само, як `x is False` у Python.

  Added in version 3.10.

PyTypeObject *Py_TYPE(PyObject *o)
  Return value: Borrowed reference. Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.14.

  Отримайте тип об’єкта Python o.

  The returned reference is borrowed from o. Do not release it with `Py_DECREF()` or similar.

  Змінено в версії 3.11: `Py_TYPE()` is changed to an inline static function. The parameter type is no longer const PyObject*.

int Py_IS_TYPE(PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

  Повертає ненульове значення, якщо тип об’єкта o є type. Інакше поверніть нуль. Еквівалент: `Py_TYPE(o) == type`.

  Added in version 3.9.

void Py_SET_TYPE(PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

  Set the type of object o to type, without any checking or reference counting.

  This is a very low-level operation. Consider instead setting the Python attribute `__class__` using `PyObject_SetAttrString()` or similar.

  Note that assigning an incompatible type can lead to undefined behavior.

  If type is a heap type, the caller must create a new reference to it. Similarly, if the old type of o is a heap type, the caller must release a reference to that type.

  Added in version 3.9.

Py_ssize_t Py_SIZE(PyVarObject *o)

  Get the `ob_size` field of o.

  Змінено в версії 3.11: `Py_SIZE()` is changed to an inline static function. The parameter type is no longer const PyVarObject*.

void Py_SET_SIZE(PyVarObject *o, Py_ssize_t size)

  Set the `ob_size` field of o to size.

  Added in version 3.9.

PyObject_HEAD_INIT(type)

  Це макрос, який розширюється до значень ініціалізації для нового типу `PyObject`. Цей макрос розширюється до:

      _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
      1, type,

PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(type, size)

  This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new `PyVarObject` type, including the `ob_size` field. This macro expands to:

      _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
      1, type, size,

## Реалізація функцій і методів

type PyCFunction
  Part of the Stable ABI.

  Type of the functions used to implement most Python callables in C. Functions of this type take two PyObject* parameters and return one such value. If the return value is `NULL`, an exception shall have been set. If not `NULL`, the return value is interpreted as the return value of the function as exposed in Python. The function must return a new reference.

  Сигнатура функції:

      PyObject *PyCFunction(PyObject *self,
                            PyObject *args);

type PyCFunctionWithKeywords
  Part of the Stable ABI.

  Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS. The function signature is:

      PyObject *PyCFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                        PyObject *args,
                                        PyObject *kwargs);

type PyCFunctionFast
  Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.13.

  Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature `METH_FASTCALL`. The function signature is:

      PyObject *PyCFunctionFast(PyObject *self,
                                PyObject *const *args,
                                Py_ssize_t nargs);

type PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords
  Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.13.

  Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS. The function signature is:

      PyObject *PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                            PyObject *const *args,
                                            Py_ssize_t nargs,
                                            PyObject *kwnames);

type PyCMethod

  Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS. The function signature is:

      PyObject *PyCMethod(PyObject *self,
                          PyTypeObject *defining_class,
                          PyObject *const *args,
                          Py_ssize_t nargs,
                          PyObject *kwnames)

  Added in version 3.9.

type PyMethodDef
  Part of the Stable ABI (including all members).

  Структура, що використовується для опису методу типу розширення. Ця структура має чотири поля:

  const char *ml_name

    Name of the method.

  PyCFunction ml_meth

    Pointer to the C implementation.

  int ml_flags

    Flags bits indicating how the call should be constructed.

  const char *ml_doc

    Points to the contents of the docstring.

The `ml_meth` is a C function pointer. The functions may be of different types, but they always return PyObject*. If the function is not of the `PyCFunction`, the compiler will require a cast in the method table. Even though `PyCFunction` defines the first parameter as PyObject*, it is common that the method implementation uses the specific C type of the self object.

The `ml_flags` field is a bitfield which can include the following flags. The individual flags indicate either a calling convention or a binding convention.

Існують такі умови виклику:

METH_VARARGS

  This is the typical calling convention, where the methods have the type `PyCFunction`. The function expects two PyObject* values. The first one is the self object for methods; for module functions, it is the module object. The second parameter (often called args) is a tuple object representing all arguments. This parameter is typically processed using `PyArg_ParseTuple()` or `PyArg_UnpackTuple()`.

METH_KEYWORDS

  Can only be used in certain combinations with other flags: METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS, METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS and METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS.

METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS

  Методи з цими прапорцями мають бути типу `PyCFunctionWithKeywords`. Функція очікує три параметри: self, args, kwargs, де kwargs є словником усіх аргументів ключового слова або, можливо, `NULL`, якщо аргументів ключового слова немає. Параметри зазвичай обробляються за допомогою `PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()`.

METH_FASTCALL

  Fast calling convention supporting only positional arguments. The methods have the type `PyCFunctionFast`. The first parameter is self, the second parameter is a C array of PyObject* values indicating the arguments and the third parameter is the number of arguments (the length of the array).

  Added in version 3.7.

  Змінено в версії 3.10: `METH_FASTCALL` is now part of the stable ABI.

METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS

  Extension of `METH_FASTCALL` supporting also keyword arguments, with methods of type `PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords`. Keyword arguments are passed the same way as in the vectorcall protocol: there is an additional fourth PyObject* parameter which is a tuple representing the names of the keyword arguments (which are guaranteed to be strings) or possibly `NULL` if there are no keywords. The values of the keyword arguments are stored in the args array, after the positional arguments.

  Added in version 3.7.

METH_METHOD

  Can only be used in the combination with other flags: METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS.

METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS

  Extension of METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS supporting the defining class, that is, the class that contains the method in question. The defining class might be a superclass of `Py_TYPE(self)`.

  Метод має мати тип `PyCMethod`, такий самий, як і для `METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS` з аргументом `defining_class`, доданим після `self`.

  Added in version 3.9.

METH_NOARGS

  Methods without parameters don’t need to check whether arguments are given if they are listed with the `METH_NOARGS` flag. They need to be of type `PyCFunction`. The first parameter is typically named self and will hold a reference to the module or object instance. In all cases the second parameter will be `NULL`.

  The function must have 2 parameters. Since the second parameter is unused, `Py_UNUSED` can be used to prevent a compiler warning.

METH_O

  Methods with a single object argument can be listed with the `METH_O` flag, instead of invoking `PyArg_ParseTuple()` with a `"O"` argument. They have the type `PyCFunction`, with the self parameter, and a PyObject* parameter representing the single argument.

Ці дві константи не використовуються для вказівки умов виклику, а для прив’язки під час використання з методами класів. Їх не можна використовувати для функцій, визначених для модулів. Щонайбільше один із цих прапорів може бути встановлений для будь-якого методу.

METH_CLASS

  Методу буде передано об’єкт типу як перший параметр, а не екземпляр типу. Це використовується для створення методів класу, подібних до того, що створюється під час використання вбудованої функції `classmethod()`.

METH_STATIC

  Методу буде передано `NULL` як перший параметр, а не екземпляр типу. Це використовується для створення статичних методів, подібних до того, що створюється під час використання вбудованої функції `staticmethod()`.

Ще одна константа контролює, чи завантажується метод замість іншого визначення з таким же ім’ям методу.

METH_COEXIST

  The method will be loaded in place of existing definitions. Without METH_COEXIST, the default is to skip repeated definitions. Since slot wrappers are loaded before the method table, the existence of a sq_contains slot, for example, would generate a wrapped method named `__contains__()` and preclude the loading of a corresponding PyCFunction with the same name. With the flag defined, the PyCFunction will be loaded in place of the wrapper object and will co-exist with the slot. This is helpful because calls to PyCFunctions are optimized more than wrapper object calls.

PyObject *PyCMethod_New(PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *cls)
  Return value: New reference. Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.9.

  Turn ml into a Python callable object. The caller must ensure that ml outlives the callable. Typically, ml is defined as a static variable.

  The self parameter will be passed as the self argument to the C function in `ml->ml_meth` when invoked. self can be `NULL`.

  The callable object’s `__module__` attribute can be set from the given module argument. module should be a Python string, which will be used as name of the module the function is defined in. If unavailable, it can be set to `None` or `NULL`.

  Дивись також

  `function.__module__`

  The cls parameter will be passed as the defining_class argument to the C function. Must be set if `METH_METHOD` is set on `ml->ml_flags`.

  Added in version 3.9.

PyObject *PyCFunction_NewEx(PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module)
  Return value: New reference. Part of the Stable ABI.

  Equivalent to `PyCMethod_New(ml, self, module, NULL)`.

PyObject *PyCFunction_New(PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self)
  Return value: New reference. Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.4.

  Equivalent to `PyCMethod_New(ml, self, NULL, NULL)`.

## Доступ до атрибутів типів розширень

type PyMemberDef
  Part of the Stable ABI (including all members).

  Structure which describes an attribute of a type which corresponds to a C struct member. When defining a class, put a NULL-terminated array of these structures in the `tp_members` slot.

  Its fields are, in order:

  const char *name

    Name of the member. A NULL value marks the end of a `PyMemberDef[]` array.

    The string should be static, no copy is made of it.

  int type

    The type of the member in the C struct. See Member types for the possible values.

  Py_ssize_t offset

    The offset in bytes that the member is located on the type’s object struct.

  int flags

    Zero or more of the Member flags, combined using bitwise OR.

  const char *doc

    The docstring, or NULL. The string should be static, no copy is made of it. Typically, it is defined using `PyDoc_STR`.

  By default (when `flags` is `0`), members allow both read and write access. Use the `Py_READONLY` flag for read-only access. Certain types, like `Py_T_STRING`, imply `Py_READONLY`. Only `Py_T_OBJECT_EX` (and legacy `T_OBJECT`) members can be deleted.

  For heap-allocated types (created using `PyType_FromSpec()` or similar), `PyMemberDef` may contain a definition for the special member `"__vectorcalloffset__"`, corresponding to `tp_vectorcall_offset` in type objects. This member must be defined with `Py_T_PYSSIZET`, and either `Py_READONLY` or `Py_READONLY | Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET`. For example:

      static PyMemberDef spam_type_members[] = {
          {"__vectorcalloffset__", Py_T_PYSSIZET,
           offsetof(Spam_object, vectorcall), Py_READONLY},
          {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
      };

  (You may need to `#include <stddef.h>` for `offsetof()`.)

  The legacy offsets `tp_dictoffset` and `tp_weaklistoffset` can be defined similarly using `"__dictoffset__"` and `"__weaklistoffset__"` members, but extensions are strongly encouraged to use `Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT` and `Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF` instead.

  Змінено в версії 3.12: `PyMemberDef` is always available. Previously, it required including `"structmember.h"`.

  Змінено в версії 3.14: `Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET` is now allowed for `"__vectorcalloffset__"`, `"__dictoffset__"` and `"__weaklistoffset__"`.

PyObject *PyMember_GetOne(const char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m)
  Part of the Stable ABI.

  Отримати атрибут, що належить об’єкту за адресою obj_addr. Атрибут описується `PyMemberDef` m. Повертає `NULL` у разі помилки.

  Змінено в версії 3.12: `PyMember_GetOne` is always available. Previously, it required including `"structmember.h"`.

int PyMember_SetOne(char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m, PyObject *o)
  Part of the Stable ABI.

  Установіть атрибут, що належить об’єкту за адресою obj_addr, на об’єкт o. Атрибут, який потрібно встановити, описується `PyMemberDef` m. Повертає `0` у разі успіху та від’ємне значення у випадку невдачі.

  Змінено в версії 3.12: `PyMember_SetOne` is always available. Previously, it required including `"structmember.h"`.

### Member flags

The following flags can be used with `PyMemberDef.flags`:

Py_READONLY

  Not writable.

Py_AUDIT_READ

  Emit an `object.__getattr__` audit event before reading.

Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET

  Indicates that the `offset` of this `PyMemberDef` entry indicates an offset from the subclass-specific data, rather than from `PyObject`.

  Can only be used as part of `Py_tp_members` `slot` when creating a class using negative `basicsize`. It is mandatory in that case.

  This flag is only used in `PyType_Slot`. When setting `tp_members` during class creation, Python clears it and sets `PyMemberDef.offset` to the offset from the `PyObject` struct.

Змінено в версії 3.10: The `RESTRICTED`, `READ_RESTRICTED` and `WRITE_RESTRICTED` macros available with `#include "structmember.h"` are deprecated. `READ_RESTRICTED` and `RESTRICTED` are equivalent to `Py_AUDIT_READ`; `WRITE_RESTRICTED` does nothing.

Змінено в версії 3.12: The `READONLY` macro was renamed to `Py_READONLY`. The `PY_AUDIT_READ` macro was renamed with the `Py_` prefix. The new names are now always available. Previously, these required `#include "structmember.h"`. The header is still available and it provides the old names.

### Member types

`PyMemberDef.type` can be one of the following macros corresponding to various C types. When the member is accessed in Python, it will be converted to the equivalent Python type. When it is set from Python, it will be converted back to the C type. If that is not possible, an exception such as `TypeError` or `ValueError` is raised.

Unless marked (D), attributes defined this way cannot be deleted using e.g. `del` or `delattr()`.

Назва макросу | тип С | Тип Python
--- | --- | ---
Py_T_BYTE | char | `int`
Py_T_SHORT | short | `int`
Py_T_INT | int | `int`
Py_T_LONG | long | `int`
Py_T_LONGLONG | long long | `int`
Py_T_UBYTE | unsigned char | `int`
Py_T_UINT | unsigned int | `int`
Py_T_USHORT | unsigned short | `int`
Py_T_ULONG | unsigned long | `int`
Py_T_ULONGLONG | unsigned long long | `int`
Py_T_PYSSIZET | Py_ssize_t | `int`
Py_T_FLOAT | float | `float`
Py_T_DOUBLE | double | `float`
Py_T_BOOL | char (written as 0 or 1) | `bool`
Py_T_STRING | const char* (*) | `str` (RO)
Py_T_STRING_INPLACE | const char[] (*) | `str` (RO)
Py_T_CHAR | char (0-127) | `str` (**)
Py_T_OBJECT_EX | PyObject* | `object` (D)

> (*): Zero-terminated, UTF8-encoded C string. With `Py_T_STRING` the C representation is a pointer; with `Py_T_STRING_INPLACE` the string is stored directly in the structure.

> (**): String of length 1. Only ASCII is accepted.

> (RO): Implies `Py_READONLY`.

> (D): Can be deleted, in which case the pointer is set to `NULL`. Reading a `NULL` pointer raises `AttributeError`.

Added in version 3.12: In previous versions, the macros were only available with `#include "structmember.h"` and were named without the `Py_` prefix (e.g. as `T_INT`). The header is still available and contains the old names, along with the following deprecated types:

T_OBJECT

  Like `Py_T_OBJECT_EX`, but `NULL` is converted to `None`. This results in surprising behavior in Python: deleting the attribute effectively sets it to `None`.

T_NONE

  Always `None`. Must be used with `Py_READONLY`.

### Defining Getters and Setters

type PyGetSetDef
  Part of the Stable ABI (including all members).

  Структура для визначення доступу типу властивості. Дивіться також опис слота `PyTypeObject.tp_getset`.

  const char *name

    назва атрибута

  getter get

    C function to get the attribute.

  setter set

    Optional C function to set or delete the attribute. If `NULL`, the attribute is read-only.

  const char *doc

    додатковий рядок документації

  void *closure

    Optional user data pointer, providing additional data for getter and setter.

typedef PyObject *(*getter)(PyObject*, void*)
  Part of the Stable ABI.

  The `get` function takes one PyObject* parameter (the instance) and a user data pointer (the associated `closure`):

  Він повинен повертати нове посилання в разі успіху або `NULL` із встановленим винятком у випадку невдачі.

typedef int (*setter)(PyObject*, PyObject*, void*)
  Part of the Stable ABI.

  `set` functions take two PyObject* parameters (the instance and the value to be set) and a user data pointer (the associated `closure`):

  У випадку, якщо атрибут потрібно видалити, другим параметром є `NULL`. Має повертати `0` у разі успіху або `-1` із встановленим винятком у випадку невдачі.