# 3. Модель данных

## 3.1. Объекты, значения и типы данных

Объекты — это абстракция данных в Python. Все данные в программе Python представлены объектами или отношениями между ними. Даже код представлен объектами.

Каждый объект имеет идентификатор, тип и значение. Идентификатор объекта никогда не меняется после его создания; его можно рассматривать как адрес объекта в памяти. Оператор `is` сравнивает идентификаторы двух объектов, а функция `id()` возвращает его в виде целого числа.

Для CPython, `id(x)` — это адрес памяти, где хранится `x`.

Тип объекта определяет операции, которые поддерживает этот объект (например, «имеет ли он длину?»), а также задаёт возможные значения для объектов этого типа. Функция `type()` возвращает тип объекта (который сам является объектом). Как и идентификатор, тип объекта также неизменен. [1]

Значение некоторых объектов может изменяться. Такие объекты называются изменяемыми. И наоборот, объекты, значение которых нельзя изменить после создания, называются неизменяемыми. (Значение неизменяемого контейнера, содержащего ссылки на изменяемые объекты, может изменяться, когда значения последних изменяются. Однако такой контейнер всё равно считается неизменяемым, поскольку нельзя изменить коллекцию объектов, которые он содержит. Таким образом, неизменяемость не полностью совпадает с понятием неизменяемого значения, это более тонкое понятие.) Изменяемость объекта определяется его типом. Например, числа, строки и кортежи — неизменяемы, а словари и списки — изменяемы.

Объекты никогда не уничтожаются явно. Однако, когда они становятся ненужными, они могут быть удалены сборщиком мусора. Реализация может откладывать сборку мусора или вовсе её не выполнять — это зависит от качества реализации, главное, чтобы не удалялись объекты, к которым ещё есть доступ.

CPython в настоящее время использует схему подсчёта ссылок с (опциональным) отложенным обнаружением циклически связанных ненужных элементов, что позволяет собирать большинство объектов сразу после того, как они становятся неиспользуемыми, но не гарантирует сборку мусора, содержащего циклические ссылки. Смотрите документацию модуля `gc` для информации о контроле сбора циклического мусора. Другие реализации работают иначе, а CPython может измениться. Не следует полагаться на немедленную финальную обработку объектов при их недостижимости (поэтому файлы всегда следует закрывать явно).

Заметьте, что использование конкретных средств трассировки или отладки может удерживать объекты живыми, которые в обычных условиях были бы собраны. Также имейте в виду, что перехват исключений в инструкциях `try`…`except` может удерживать объекты живыми.

Некоторые объекты содержат ссылки на «внешние» ресурсы, такие как открытые файлы или окна. Разумеется, эти ресурсы освобождаются при удалении объекта сборщиком мусора. Но поскольку сборка мусора не гарантируется, такие объекты также предоставляют явный способ освободить внешний ресурс, обычно через метод `close()`. Настоятельно рекомендуется явно закрывать такие объекты. Инструкции `try`…`finally` и `with` предоставляют удобные способы сделать это.

Некоторые объекты содержат ссылки на другие объекты. Они называются контейнерами. Примеры контейнеров: кортежи, списки и словари. Эти ссылки являются частью значения контейнера. В большинстве случаев, когда мы говорим о значении контейнера, подразумеваются значения, а не идентификаторы содержащихся объектов. Однако при обсуждении изменяемости контейнера подразумеваются только идентификаторы объектов, непосредственно содержащихся в нём. Таким образом, если неизменяемый контейнер (например, кортеж) содержит ссылку на изменяемый объект, его значение меняется, если изменяется содержимое этого изменяемого объекта.

Типы влияют практически на все аспекты поведения объектов. Даже значение идентификатора объекта в некотором смысле зависит от типа: для неизменяемых типов операции, вычисляющие новые значения, могут на самом деле возвращать ссылку на существующий объект с тем же типом и значением, тогда как для изменяемых объектов это не разрешено. Например, после `a = 1; b = 1`, a и b могут ссылаться на один и тот же объект со значением один или на разные объекты, в зависимости от реализации. Это происходит потому, что `int` — неизменяемый тип, поэтому ссылка на `1` может быть переиспользована. Такое поведение зависит от используемой реализации и не должно восприниматься как гарантированное, но его стоит учитывать при проверках идентичности объектов. Однако после `c = []; d = []`, c и d гарантированно ссылаются на два различных, уникальных, заново созданных пустых списка. (Обратите внимание, что `e = f = []` присваивает один и тот же объект и e, и f.)

## 3.2. Иерархия стандартных типов

Ниже приведён список типов, встроенных в Python. Модули расширений (написанные на C, Java или других языках, в зависимости от реализации) могут определять дополнительные типы. В будущих версиях Python в иерархию типов могут быть добавлены новые типы (например, рациональные числа, эффективно хранимые массивы целых чисел и т. п.), хотя такие дополнения чаще будут предоставляться через стандартную библиотеку.

В описании некоторых типов ниже приведён абзац со списком «специальных атрибутов». Это атрибуты, которые предоставляют доступ к деталям реализации и не предназначены для общего использования. Их определение может измениться в будущем.

### 3.2.1. None

У этого типа есть только одно значение. Существует единственный объект с этим значением. Этот объект доступен через встроенное имя `None`. Он используется для обозначения отсутствия значения во многих случаях, например, возвращается функциями, которые явно ничего не возвращают. Его логическое значение — ложь.

### 3.2.2. NotImplemented

У этого типа есть только одно значение. Существует единственный объект с этим значением. Этот объект доступен через встроенное имя `NotImplemented`. Числовые методы и методы расширенного сравнения должны возвращать это значение, если они не реализуют операцию для данных операндов. (Интерпретатор затем попробует отражённую операцию или другой вариант обработки, в зависимости от оператора.) Его не следует использовать в логическом контексте.

См. Implementing the arithmetic operations для получения подробностей.

Изменено в версии 3.9: Использование `NotImplemented` в логическом контексте было объявлено устаревшим.

Изменено в версии 3.14: Использование `NotImplemented` в логическом контексте теперь возбуждает `TypeError`. Ранее оно оценивалось как `True` и генерировало `DeprecationWarning` начиная с Python 3.9.

### 3.2.3. Ellipsis

У этого типа есть только одно значение. Существует единственный объект с этим значением. Этот объект доступен через литерал `...` или через встроенное имя `Ellipsis`. Его логическое значение — истина.

### 3.2.4. `numbers.Number`

Они создаются числовыми литералами и возвращаются как результаты арифметических операторов и встроенных арифметических функций. Числовые объекты неизменяемы: после создания их значение никогда не меняется. Числа в Python, разумеется, тесно связаны с математическими числами, но подчиняются ограничениям численного представления в компьютерах.

Строковые представления числовых классов, вычисляемые методами `__repr__()` и `__str__()`, обладают следующими свойствами:

- Они являются корректными числовыми литералами, которые при передаче в конструктор своего класса создают объект со значением исходного числа.

- Представление, когда это возможно, осуществляется в десятичной системе счисления.

- Ведущие нули, за исключением, возможно, одного нуля перед десятичной точкой, не отображаются.

- Конечные нули, за исключением, возможно, одного нуля после десятичной точки, не отображаются.

- Знак отображается только в том случае, если число отрицательное.

Python различает целые числа, числа с плавающей точкой и комплексные числа:

#### 3.2.4.1. `numbers.Integral`

Эти объекты представляют элементы математического множества целых чисел (положительных и отрицательных).

Примечание

Правила представления целых чисел выбраны так, чтобы операции сдвига и наложения маски имели наиболее осмысленную интерпретацию, в том числе для отрицательных чисел.

Существует два типа целых чисел:

Целые числа (`int`)

  Они представляют числа неограниченного диапазона, ограниченного лишь объёмом доступной (виртуальной) памяти. Для операций сдвига и наложения маски предполагается двоичное представление, а отрицательные числа представляются в варианте дополнительного до степени 2 кода, создающем иллюзию бесконечной последовательности значащих битов, продолжающейся влево.

Логические значения (`bool`)

  Они представляют логические значения Ложь и Истина. Два объекта, представляющие значения `False` и `True`, являются единственными логическими объектами. Логический тип является подтипом целых чисел, и логические значения ведут себя как числа 0 и 1 соответственно почти во всех контекстах, за исключением случая преобразования их в строки `"False"` и `"True"` соответственно.

#### 3.2.4.2. `numbers.Real` (`float`)

Они представляют числа с плавающей точкой двойной точности на машинном уровне. Диапазон допустимых значений и обработка переполнения зависят от архитектуры машины (и реализации на C или Java). Python не поддерживает числа с плавающей точкой одинарной точности — экономия процессорного времени и памяти, ради которой их обычно используют, ничтожна по сравнению с накладными расходами на использование объектов в Python. Поэтому нет смысла усложнять язык двумя видами чисел с плавающей точкой.

#### 3.2.4.3. `numbers.Complex` (`complex`)

Они представляют комплексные числа как пару чисел с плавающей точкой двойной точности на машинном уровне. Здесь действуют те же оговорки, что и для чисел с плавающей точкой. Вещественную и мнимую части комплексного числа `z` можно получить через атрибуты только для чтения `z.real` и `z.imag`.

### 3.2.5. Последовательности

Последовательности представляют конечные упорядоченные множества, индексируемые неотрицательными числами. Встроенная функция `len()` возвращает количество элементов последовательности. Если длина последовательности равна n, множество индексов содержит числа 0, 1, …, n-1. Элемент i последовательности a выбирается с помощью `a[i]`. Некоторые последовательности, включая встроенные, интерпретируют отрицательные индексы путём прибавления к ним длины последовательности. Например, `a[-2]` эквивалентно `a[n-2]` — предпоследнему элементу последовательности a длины `n`.

Полученное значение должно быть неотрицательным целым числом, меньшим количества элементов в последовательности. Если это не так, возбуждается исключение `IndexError`.

Последовательности также поддерживают срезы: `a[start:stop]` выбирает все элементы с индексом k, такие что start `<=` k `<` stop. При использовании в качестве выражения срез представляет собой последовательность того же типа. Приведённое выше замечание об отрицательных индексах также относится к отрицательным границам срезов. Обратите внимание, что ошибка не возникает, если граница среза меньше нуля или больше длины последовательности.

Если параметр start отсутствует или равен `None`, он считается равным нулю. А если не указан или равен `None` параметр stop, то он считается равным длине последовательности.

Некоторые последовательности также поддерживают «расширенные срезы» с третьим параметром «шага»: `a[i:j:k]` выбирает все элементы a с индексом x, где `x = i + n*k`, n `>=` `0` и i `<=` x `<` j.

Последовательности различаются по изменяемости.

#### 3.2.5.1. Неизменяемые последовательности

Объект типа неизменяемой последовательности не может измениться после создания. (Если объект содержит ссылки на другие объекты, эти другие объекты могут быть изменяемыми и могут изменяться; однако коллекция объектов, на которые непосредственно ссылается неизменяемый объект, не может измениться.)

Следующие типы являются неизменяемыми последовательностями:

Строки

  Строка (`str`) — это последовательность значений, представляющих символы или, более формально, кодовые точки Юникод. Все кодовые точки в диапазоне от `0` до `0x10FFFF` могут быть представлены в строке.

  В Python нет отдельного типа символ. Вместо этого каждая кодовая точка в строке представлена объектом строки длиной `1`.

  Встроенная функция `ord()` преобразует кодовую точку из строкового представления в целое число из диапазона от `0` до `0x10FFFF`; `chr()` преобразует целое число из диапазона от `0` до `0x10FFFF` в соответствующий объект строки длиной `1`. Метод `str.encode()` можно использовать для преобразования `str` в `bytes` с использованием указанной кодировки текста, а `bytes.decode()` позволяет выполнить обратное преобразование.

Кортежи

  Элементы `tuple` могут быть произвольными объектами Python. Кортежи из двух и более элементов создаются списками выражений, разделённых запятыми. Кортеж из одного элемента (так называемый «одноэлементный кортеж») создаётся добавлением запятой после выражения (само по себе выражение не создаёт кортеж, поскольку круглые скобки должны оставаться доступными для группировки выражений). Пустой кортеж создаётся пустой парой круглых скобок.

Байты

  Объект `bytes` является неизменяемым массивом. Его элементы — это 8-битные байты, представленные целыми числами из диапазона 0 <= x < 256. Литералы байтов (например, `b'abc'`) и встроенный конструктор `bytes()` можно использовать для создания объектов bytes. Кроме того, объекты bytes можно декодировать в строки с помощью метода `decode()`.

#### 3.2.5.2. Изменяемые последовательности

Изменяемые последовательности можно изменять после их создания. Выражение с доступом к элементу или взятием среза можно использовать в качестве цели присваивания и инструкции `del` (удаления).

Примечание

Модули `collections` и `array` предоставляют дополнительные примеры типов изменяемых последовательностей.

В настоящее время существует два внутренних типа изменяемых последовательностей:

Списки

  Элементы списка могут быть произвольными объектами Python. Списки формируются размещением списка выражений через запятую в квадратные скобки. (Обратите внимание, что для создания списков длиной 0 или 1 не требуется никаких особых правил.)

Массивы байтов

  Объекты bytearray представляют собой изменяемые массивы. Они создаются встроенным конструктором `bytearray()`. Помимо того, что байтовые массивы изменяемы (и, следовательно, не хэшируются), в остальном они предоставляют тот же интерфейс и функциональность, что и неизменяемые объекты `bytes`.

### 3.2.6. Set types

These represent unordered, finite sets of unique, immutable objects. As such, they cannot be indexed by any subscript. However, they can be iterated over, and the built-in function `len()` returns the number of items in a set. Common uses for sets are fast membership testing, removing duplicates from a sequence, and computing mathematical operations such as intersection, union, difference, and symmetric difference.

For set elements, the same immutability rules apply as for dictionary keys. Note that numeric types obey the normal rules for numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., `1` and `1.0`), only one of them can be contained in a set.

There are currently two intrinsic set types:

Sets

  These represent a mutable set. They are created by the built-in `set()` constructor and can be modified afterwards by several methods, such as `add()`.

Frozen sets

  These represent an immutable set. They are created by the built-in `frozenset()` constructor. As a frozenset is immutable and hashable, it can be used again as an element of another set, or as a dictionary key.

### 3.2.7. Mappings

These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index sets. The subscript notation `a[k]` selects the item indexed by `k` from the mapping `a`; this can be used in expressions and as the target of assignments or `del` statements. The built-in function `len()` returns the number of items in a mapping.

There are two intrinsic mapping types:

#### 3.2.7.1. Dictionaries

These represent finite sets of objects indexed by nearly arbitrary values. The only types of values not acceptable as keys are values containing lists or dictionaries or other mutable types that are compared by value rather than by object identity, the reason being that the efficient implementation of dictionaries requires a key’s hash value to remain constant. Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules for numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., `1` and `1.0`) then they can be used interchangeably to index the same dictionary entry.

Dictionaries preserve insertion order, meaning that keys will be produced in the same order they were added sequentially over the dictionary. Replacing an existing key does not change the order, however removing a key and re-inserting it will add it to the end instead of keeping its old place.

Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the `{}` notation (see section Dictionary displays).

The extension modules `dbm.ndbm` and `dbm.gnu` provide additional examples of mapping types, as does the `collections` module.

Изменено в версии 3.7: Dictionaries did not preserve insertion order in versions of Python before 3.6. In CPython 3.6, insertion order was preserved, but it was considered an implementation detail at that time rather than a language guarantee.

#### 3.2.7.2. Frozen dictionaries

These represent an immutable dictionary. They are created by the built-in `frozendict()` constructor. A frozendict is hashable if all of its keys and values are hashable, in which case it can be used as an element of a set, or as a key in another mapping. `frozendict` is not a subclass of `dict`; it inherits directly from `object`.

Добавлено в версии 3.15.

### 3.2.8. Callable types

These are the types to which the function call operation (see section Calls) can be applied:

#### 3.2.8.1. User-defined functions

A user-defined function object is created by a function definition (see section Function definitions). It should be called with an argument list containing the same number of items as the function’s formal parameter list.

##### 3.2.8.1.1. Special read-only attributes

Attribute | Meaning
--- | ---

function.__builtins__

A reference to the `dictionary` that holds the function’s builtins namespace.

Добавлено в версии 3.10.

function.__globals__

A reference to the `dictionary` that holds the function’s global variables – the global namespace of the module in which the function was defined.

function.__closure__

`None` or a `tuple` of cells that contain bindings for the names specified in the `co_freevars` attribute of the function’s `code object`.

A cell object has the attribute `cell_contents`. This can be used to get the value of the cell, as well as set the value.

##### 3.2.8.1.2. Special writable attributes

Most of these attributes check the type of the assigned value:

Attribute | Meaning
--- | ---

function.__doc__

The function’s documentation string, or `None` if unavailable.

function.__name__

The function’s name. See also: `__name__ attributes`.

function.__qualname__

The function’s qualified name. See also: `__qualname__ attributes`.

Добавлено в версии 3.3.

function.__module__

The name of the module the function was defined in, or `None` if unavailable.

function.__defaults__

A `tuple` containing default parameter values for those parameters that have defaults, or `None` if no parameters have a default value.

function.__code__

The code object representing the compiled function body.

function.__dict__

The namespace supporting arbitrary function attributes. See also: `__dict__ attributes`.

function.__annotations__

A `dictionary` containing annotations of parameters. The keys of the dictionary are the parameter names, and `'return'` for the return annotation, if provided. See also: `object.__annotations__`.

Изменено в версии 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated. See PEP 649.

function.__annotate__

The annotate function for this function, or `None` if the function has no annotations. See `object.__annotate__`.

Добавлено в версии 3.14.

function.__kwdefaults__

A `dictionary` containing defaults for keyword-only parameters.

function.__type_params__

A `tuple` containing the type parameters of a generic function.

Добавлено в версии 3.12.

Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary attributes, which can be used, for example, to attach metadata to functions. Regular attribute dot-notation is used to get and set such attributes.

Деталь реализации CPython: CPython’s current implementation only supports function attributes on user-defined functions. Function attributes on built-in functions may be supported in the future.

Additional information about a function’s definition can be retrieved from its code object (accessible via the `__code__` attribute).

#### 3.2.8.2. Instance methods

An instance method object combines a class, a class instance and any callable object (normally a user-defined function).

Special read-only attributes:

method.__self__

Refers to the class instance object to which the method is bound

method.__func__

Refers to the original function object

method.__doc__

The method’s documentation (same as `method.__func__.__doc__`). A `string` if the original function had a docstring, else `None`.

method.__name__

The name of the method (same as `method.__func__.__name__`)

method.__module__

The name of the module the method was defined in, or `None` if unavailable.

Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary function attributes on the underlying function object.

User-defined method objects may be created when getting an attribute of a class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if that attribute is a user-defined function object or a `classmethod` object.

When an instance method object is created by retrieving a user-defined function object from a class via one of its instances, its `__self__` attribute is the instance, and the method object is said to be bound. The new method’s `__func__` attribute is the original function object.

When an instance method object is created by retrieving a `classmethod` object from a class or instance, its `__self__` attribute is the class itself, and its `__func__` attribute is the function object underlying the class method.

When an instance method object is called, the underlying function (`__func__`) is called, inserting the class instance (`__self__`) in front of the argument list. For instance, when `C` is a class which contains a definition for a function `f()`, and `x` is an instance of `C`, calling `x.f(1)` is equivalent to calling `C.f(x, 1)`.

When an instance method object is derived from a `classmethod` object, the «class instance» stored in `__self__` will actually be the class itself, so that calling either `x.f(1)` or `C.f(1)` is equivalent to calling `f(C,1)` where `f` is the underlying function.

It is important to note that user-defined functions which are attributes of a class instance are not converted to bound methods; this only happens when the function is an attribute of the class.

#### 3.2.8.3. Generator functions

A function or method which uses the `yield` statement (see section Инструкция yield) is called a generator function. Such a function, when called, always returns an iterator object which can be used to execute the body of the function: calling the iterator’s `iterator.__next__()` method will cause the function to execute until it provides a value using the `yield` statement. When the function executes a `return` statement or falls off the end, a `StopIteration` exception is raised and the iterator will have reached the end of the set of values to be returned.

#### 3.2.8.4. Coroutine functions

A function or method which is defined using `async def` is called a coroutine function. Such a function, when called, returns a coroutine object. It may contain `await` expressions, as well as `async with` and `async for` statements. See also the Coroutine Objects section.

#### 3.2.8.5. Asynchronous generator functions

A function or method which is defined using `async def` and which uses the `yield` statement is called a asynchronous generator function. Such a function, when called, returns an asynchronous iterator object which can be used in an `async for` statement to execute the body of the function.

Calling the asynchronous iterator’s `aiterator.__anext__` method will return an awaitable which when awaited will execute until it provides a value using the `yield` expression. When the function executes an empty `return` statement or falls off the end, a `StopAsyncIteration` exception is raised and the asynchronous iterator will have reached the end of the set of values to be yielded.

#### 3.2.8.6. Built-in functions

A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function. Examples of built-in functions are `len()` and `math.sin()` (`math` is a standard built-in module). The number and type of the arguments are determined by the C function. Special read-only attributes:

- `__doc__` is the function’s documentation string, or `None` if unavailable. See `function.__doc__`.

- `__name__` is the function’s name. See `function.__name__`.

- `__self__` is set to `None` (but see the next item).

- `__module__` is the name of the module the function was defined in or `None` if unavailable. See `function.__module__`.

#### 3.2.8.7. Built-in methods

This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time containing an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra argument. An example of a built-in method is `alist.append()`, assuming alist is a list object. In this case, the special read-only attribute `__self__` is set to the object denoted by alist. (The attribute has the same semantics as it does with `other instance methods`.)

#### 3.2.8.8. Classes

Classes are callable. These objects normally act as factories for new instances of themselves, but variations are possible for class types that override `__new__()`. The arguments of the call are passed to `__new__()` and, in the typical case, to `__init__()` to initialize the new instance.

#### 3.2.8.9. Class Instances

Instances of arbitrary classes can be made callable by defining a `__call__()` method in their class.

### 3.2.9. Modules

Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created by the import system as invoked either by the `import` statement, or by calling functions such as `importlib.import_module()` and built-in `__import__()`. A module object has a namespace implemented by a `dictionary` object (this is the dictionary referenced by the `__globals__` attribute of functions defined in the module). Attribute references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., `m.x` is equivalent to `m.__dict__["x"]`. A module object does not contain the code object used to initialize the module (since it isn’t needed once the initialization is done).

Attribute assignment updates the module’s namespace dictionary, e.g., `m.x = 1` is equivalent to `m.__dict__["x"] = 1`.

#### 3.2.9.1. Import-related attributes on module objects

Module objects have the following attributes that relate to the import system. When a module is created using the machinery associated with the import system, these attributes are filled in based on the module’s spec, before the loader executes and loads the module.

To create a module dynamically rather than using the import system, it’s recommended to use `importlib.util.module_from_spec()`, which will set the various import-controlled attributes to appropriate values. It’s also possible to use the `types.ModuleType` constructor to create modules directly, but this technique is more error-prone, as most attributes must be manually set on the module object after it has been created when using this approach.

Осторожно

With the exception of `__name__`, it is strongly recommended that you rely on `__spec__` and its attributes instead of any of the other individual attributes listed in this subsection. Note that updating an attribute on `__spec__` will not update the corresponding attribute on the module itself:

    >>> import typing
    >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
    ('typing', 'typing')
    >>> typing.__spec__.name = 'spelling'
    >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
    ('typing', 'spelling')
    >>> typing.__name__ = 'keyboard_smashing'
    >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
    ('keyboard_smashing', 'spelling')

module.__name__

  The name used to uniquely identify the module in the import system. For a directly executed module, this will be set to `"__main__"`.

  This attribute must be set to the fully qualified name of the module. It is expected to match the value of `module.__spec__.name`.

module.__spec__

  A record of the module’s import-system-related state.

  Set to the `module spec` that was used when importing the module. See Module specs for more details.

  Добавлено в версии 3.4.

module.__package__

  The package a module belongs to.

  If the module is top-level (that is, not a part of any specific package) then the attribute should be set to `''` (the empty string). Otherwise, it should be set to the name of the module’s package (which can be equal to `module.__name__` if the module itself is a package). See PEP 366 for further details.

  This attribute is used instead of `__name__` to calculate explicit relative imports for main modules. It defaults to `None` for modules created dynamically using the `types.ModuleType` constructor; use `importlib.util.module_from_spec()` instead to ensure the attribute is set to a `str`.

  It is strongly recommended that you use `module.__spec__.parent` instead of `module.__package__`. `__package__` is now only used as a fallback if `__spec__.parent` is not set, and this fallback path is deprecated.

  Изменено в версии 3.4: This attribute now defaults to `None` for modules created dynamically using the `types.ModuleType` constructor. Previously the attribute was optional.

  Изменено в версии 3.6: The value of `__package__` is expected to be the same as `__spec__.parent`. `__package__` is now only used as a fallback during import resolution if `__spec__.parent` is not defined.

  Изменено в версии 3.10: `ImportWarning` is raised if an import resolution falls back to `__package__` instead of `__spec__.parent`.

  Изменено в версии 3.12: Raise `DeprecationWarning` instead of `ImportWarning` when falling back to `__package__` during import resolution.

  Устарело с версии 3.13, удалено в версии 3.15: `__package__` will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or standard library.

module.__loader__

  The loader object that the import machinery used to load the module.

  This attribute is mostly useful for introspection, but can be used for additional loader-specific functionality, for example getting data associated with a loader.

  `__loader__` defaults to `None` for modules created dynamically using the `types.ModuleType` constructor; use `importlib.util.module_from_spec()` instead to ensure the attribute is set to a loader object.

  It is strongly recommended that you use `module.__spec__.loader` instead of `module.__loader__`.

  Изменено в версии 3.4: This attribute now defaults to `None` for modules created dynamically using the `types.ModuleType` constructor. Previously the attribute was optional.

  Устарело с версии 3.12, будет удалено в версии 3.16: Setting `__loader__` on a module while failing to set `__spec__.loader` is deprecated. In Python 3.16, `__loader__` will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library.

module.__path__

  A (possibly empty) sequence of strings enumerating the locations where the package’s submodules will be found. Non-package modules should not have a `__path__` attribute. See __path__ attributes on modules for more details.

  It is strongly recommended that you use `module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations` instead of `module.__path__`.

module.__file__

  `__file__` is an optional attribute that may or may not be set. Both attributes should be a `str` when they are available.

  An optional attribute, `__file__` indicates the pathname of the file from which the module was loaded (if loaded from a file), or the pathname of the shared library file for extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared library. It might be missing for certain types of modules, such as C modules that are statically linked into the interpreter, and the import system may opt to leave it unset if it has no semantic meaning (for example, a module loaded from a database).

  Устарело с версии 3.13, удалено в версии 3.15: Setting `__cached__` on a module while failing to set `__spec__.cached` is deprecated. In Python 3.15, `__cached__` will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or standard library.

  Изменено в версии 3.15: `__cached__` is no longer set.

#### 3.2.9.2. Other writable attributes on module objects

As well as the import-related attributes listed above, module objects also have the following writable attributes:

module.__doc__

  The module’s documentation string, or `None` if unavailable. See also: `__doc__ attributes`.

module.__annotations__

  A dictionary containing variable annotations collected during module body execution. For best practices on working with `__annotations__`, see `annotationlib`.

  Изменено в версии 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated. See PEP 649.

module.__annotate__

  The annotate function for this module, or `None` if the module has no annotations. See also: `__annotate__` attributes.

  Добавлено в версии 3.14.

module.__lazy_modules__

  A container (an object implementing `__contains__()`) of fully qualified module name strings. When defined at module scope, any regular `import` statement in that module whose target module name appears in this container is treated as a lazy import, as if the `lazy` keyword had been used. Imports inside functions, class bodies, or `try`/`except`/`finally` blocks are unaffected.

  See Совместимость через __lazy_modules__ for details and examples.

  Добавлено в версии 3.15.

#### 3.2.9.3. Module dictionaries

Module objects also have the following special read-only attribute:

module.__dict__

  The module’s namespace as a dictionary object. Uniquely among the attributes listed here, `__dict__` cannot be accessed as a global variable from within a module; it can only be accessed as an attribute on module objects.

  Деталь реализации CPython: Because of the way CPython clears module dictionaries, the module dictionary will be cleared when the module falls out of scope even if the dictionary still has live references. To avoid this, copy the dictionary or keep the module around while using its dictionary directly.

### 3.2.10. Custom classes

Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see section Class definitions). A class has a namespace implemented by a dictionary object. Class attribute references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., `C.x` is translated to `C.__dict__["x"]` (although there are a number of hooks which allow for other means of locating attributes). When the attribute name is not found there, the attribute search continues in the base classes. This search of the base classes uses the C3 method resolution order which behaves correctly even in the presence of „diamond“ inheritance structures where there are multiple inheritance paths leading back to a common ancestor. Additional details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be found at The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order.

When a class attribute reference (for class `C`, say) would yield a class method object, it is transformed into an instance method object whose `__self__` attribute is `C`. When it would yield a `staticmethod` object, it is transformed into the object wrapped by the static method object. See section Implementing Descriptors for another way in which attributes retrieved from a class may differ from those actually contained in its `__dict__`.

Class attribute assignments update the class’s dictionary, never the dictionary of a base class.

A class object can be called (see above) to yield a class instance (see below).

#### 3.2.10.1. Special attributes

Attribute | Meaning
--- | ---

type.__name__

The class’s name. See also: `__name__ attributes`.

type.__qualname__

The class’s qualified name. See also: `__qualname__ attributes`.

type.__module__

The name of the module in which the class was defined.

type.__dict__

A `mapping proxy` providing a read-only view of the class’s namespace. See also: `__dict__ attributes`.

type.__bases__

A `tuple` containing the class’s bases. In most cases, for a class defined as `class X(A, B, C)`, `X.__bases__` will be exactly equal to `(A, B, C)`.

type.__base__

Деталь реализации CPython: The single base class in the inheritance chain that is responsible for the memory layout of instances. This attribute corresponds to `tp_base` at the C level.

type.__doc__

The class’s documentation string, or `None` if undefined. Not inherited by subclasses.

type.__annotations__

A dictionary containing variable annotations collected during class body execution. See also: `__annotations__ attributes`.

For best practices on working with `__annotations__`, please see `annotationlib`. Use `annotationlib.get_annotations()` instead of accessing this attribute directly.

Предупреждение

Accessing the `__annotations__` attribute directly on a class object may return annotations for the wrong class, specifically in certain cases where the class, its base class, or a metaclass is defined under `from __future__ import annotations`. See 749 for details.

This attribute does not exist on certain builtin classes. On user-defined classes without `__annotations__`, it is an empty dictionary.

Изменено в версии 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated. See PEP 649.

type.__annotate__()

The annotate function for this class, or `None` if the class has no annotations. See also: `__annotate__ attributes`.

Добавлено в версии 3.14.

type.__type_params__

A `tuple` containing the type parameters of a generic class.

Добавлено в версии 3.12.

type.__static_attributes__

A `tuple` containing names of attributes of this class which are assigned through `self.X` from any function in its body.

Добавлено в версии 3.13.

type.__firstlineno__

The line number of the first line of the class definition, including decorators. Setting the `__module__` attribute removes the `__firstlineno__` item from the type’s dictionary.

Добавлено в версии 3.13.

type.__mro__

The `tuple` of classes that are considered when looking for base classes during method resolution.

#### 3.2.10.2. Special methods

In addition to the special attributes described above, all Python classes also have the following two methods available:

type.mro()

  This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the method resolution order for its instances. It is called at class instantiation, and its result is stored in `__mro__`.

type.__subclasses__()

  Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate subclasses. This method returns a list of all those references still alive. The list is in definition order. Example:

      >>> class A: pass
      >>> class B(A): pass
      >>> A.__subclasses__()
      [<class 'B'>]

### 3.2.11. Class instances

A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above). A class instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which is the first place in which attribute references are searched. When an attribute is not found there, and the instance’s class has an attribute by that name, the search continues with the class attributes. If a class attribute is found that is a user-defined function object, it is transformed into an instance method object whose `__self__` attribute is the instance. Static method and class method objects are also transformed; see above under «Classes». See section Implementing Descriptors for another way in which attributes of a class retrieved via its instances may differ from the objects actually stored in the class’s `__dict__`. If no class attribute is found, and the object’s class has a `__getattr__()` method, that is called to satisfy the lookup.

Attribute assignments and deletions update the instance’s dictionary, never a class’s dictionary. If the class has a `__setattr__()` or `__delattr__()` method, this is called instead of updating the instance dictionary directly.

Class instances can pretend to be numbers, sequences, or mappings if they have methods with certain special names. See section Special method names.

#### 3.2.11.1. Special attributes

object.__class__

  The class to which a class instance belongs.

object.__dict__

  A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object’s (writable) attributes. Not all instances have a `__dict__` attribute; see the section on __slots__ for more details.

### 3.2.12. I/O objects (also known as file objects)

A file object represents an open file. Various shortcuts are available to create file objects: the `open()` built-in function, and also `os.popen()`, `os.fdopen()`, and the `makefile()` method of socket objects (and perhaps by other functions or methods provided by extension modules).

File objects implement common methods, listed below, to simplify usage in generic code. They are expected to be With Statement Context Managers.

The objects `sys.stdin`, `sys.stdout` and `sys.stderr` are initialized to file objects corresponding to the interpreter’s standard input, output and error streams; they are all open in text mode and therefore follow the interface defined by the `io.TextIOBase` abstract class.

file.read(size=-1, /)

  Retrieve up to size data from the file. As a convenience if size is unspecified or -1 retrieve all data available.

file.write(data, /)

  Store data to the file.

file.close()

  Flush any buffers and close the underlying file.

### 3.2.13. Internal types

A few types used internally by the interpreter are exposed to the user. Their definitions may change with future versions of the interpreter, but they are mentioned here for completeness.

#### 3.2.13.1. Code objects

Code objects represent byte-compiled executable Python code, or bytecode. The difference between a code object and a function object is that the function object contains an explicit reference to the function’s globals (the module in which it was defined), while a code object contains no context; also the default argument values are stored in the function object, not in the code object (because they represent values calculated at run-time). Unlike function objects, code objects are immutable and contain no references (directly or indirectly) to mutable objects.

##### 3.2.13.1.1. Special read-only attributes

codeobject.co_name

The function name

codeobject.co_qualname

The fully qualified function name

Добавлено в версии 3.11.

codeobject.co_argcount

The total number of positional parameters (including positional-only parameters and parameters with default values) that the function has

codeobject.co_posonlyargcount

The number of positional-only parameters (including arguments with default values) that the function has

codeobject.co_kwonlyargcount

The number of keyword-only parameters (including arguments with default values) that the function has

codeobject.co_nlocals

The number of local variables used by the function (including parameters)

codeobject.co_varnames

A `tuple` containing the names of the local variables in the function (starting with the parameter names)

codeobject.co_cellvars

A `tuple` containing the names of local variables that are referenced from at least one nested scope inside the function

codeobject.co_freevars

A `tuple` containing the names of free (closure) variables that a nested scope references in an outer scope. See also `function.__closure__`.

Note: references to global and builtin names are not included.

codeobject.co_code

A string representing the sequence of bytecode instructions in the function

codeobject.co_consts

A `tuple` containing the literals used by the bytecode in the function

codeobject.co_names

A `tuple` containing the names used by the bytecode in the function

codeobject.co_filename

The name of the file from which the code was compiled

codeobject.co_firstlineno

The line number of the first line of the function

codeobject.co_stacksize

The required stack size of the code object

codeobject.co_flags

An `integer` encoding a number of flags for the interpreter.

The following flag bits are defined for `co_flags`: bit `0x04` is set if the function uses the `*arguments` syntax to accept an arbitrary number of positional arguments; bit `0x08` is set if the function uses the `**keywords` syntax to accept arbitrary keyword arguments; bit `0x20` is set if the function is a generator. See Code Objects Bit Flags for details on the semantics of each flags that might be present.

Future feature declarations (for example, `from __future__ import division`) also use bits in `co_flags` to indicate whether a code object was compiled with a particular feature enabled. See `compiler_flag`.

Other bits in `co_flags` are reserved for internal use.

If a code object represents a function and has a docstring, the `CO_HAS_DOCSTRING` bit is set in `co_flags` and the first item in `co_consts` is the docstring of the function.

##### 3.2.13.1.2. Methods on code objects

codeobject.co_positions()

  Returns an iterable over the source code positions of each bytecode instruction in the code object.

  The iterator returns `tuple`s containing the `(start_line, end_line, start_column, end_column)`. The i-th tuple corresponds to the position of the source code that compiled to the i-th code unit. Column information is 0-indexed utf-8 byte offsets on the given source line.

  This positional information can be missing. A non-exhaustive lists of cases where this may happen:

  - Running the interpreter with `-X` `no_debug_ranges`.

  - Loading a pyc file compiled while using `-X` `no_debug_ranges`.

  - Position tuples corresponding to artificial instructions.

  - Line and column numbers that can’t be represented due to implementation specific limitations.

  When this occurs, some or all of the tuple elements can be `None`.

  Добавлено в версии 3.11.

  Примечание

  This feature requires storing column positions in code objects which may result in a small increase of disk usage of compiled Python files or interpreter memory usage. To avoid storing the extra information and/or deactivate printing the extra traceback information, the `-X` `no_debug_ranges` command line flag or the `PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES` environment variable can be used.

codeobject.co_lines()

  Returns an iterator that yields information about successive ranges of bytecodes. Each item yielded is a `(start, end, lineno)` `tuple`:

  - `start` (an `int`) represents the offset (inclusive) of the start of the bytecode range

  - `end` (an `int`) represents the offset (exclusive) of the end of the bytecode range

  - `lineno` is an `int` representing the line number of the bytecode range, or `None` if the bytecodes in the given range have no line number

  The items yielded will have the following properties:

  - The first range yielded will have a `start` of 0.

  - The `(start, end)` ranges will be non-decreasing and consecutive. That is, for any pair of `tuple`s, the `start` of the second will be equal to the `end` of the first.

  - No range will be backwards: `end >= start` for all triples.

  - The last `tuple` yielded will have `end` equal to the size of the bytecode.

  Zero-width ranges, where `start == end`, are allowed. Zero-width ranges are used for lines that are present in the source code, but have been eliminated by the bytecode compiler.

  Добавлено в версии 3.10.

  См. также

  PEP 626 - Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.

    The PEP that introduced the `co_lines()` method.

codeobject.replace(**kwargs)

  Return a copy of the code object with new values for the specified fields.

  Code objects are also supported by the generic function `copy.replace()`.

  Добавлено в версии 3.8.

#### 3.2.13.2. Frame objects

Frame objects represent execution frames. They may occur in traceback objects, and are also passed to registered trace functions.

##### 3.2.13.2.1. Special read-only attributes

frame.f_back

Points to the previous stack frame (towards the caller), or `None` if this is the bottom stack frame

frame.f_code

The code object being executed in this frame. Accessing this attribute raises an auditing event `object.__getattr__` with arguments `obj` and `"f_code"`.

frame.f_locals

The mapping used by the frame to look up local variables. If the frame refers to an optimized scope, this may return a write-through proxy object.

Изменено в версии 3.13: Return a proxy for optimized scopes.

frame.f_globals

The dictionary used by the frame to look up global variables

frame.f_builtins

The dictionary used by the frame to look up built-in (intrinsic) names

frame.f_lasti

The «precise instruction» of the frame object (this is an index into the bytecode string of the code object)

frame.f_generator

The generator or coroutine object that owns this frame, or `None` if the frame is a normal function.

Добавлено в версии 3.14.

##### 3.2.13.2.2. Special writable attributes

frame.f_trace

If not `None`, this is a function called for various events during code execution (this is used by debuggers). Normally an event is triggered for each new source line (see `f_trace_lines`).

frame.f_trace_lines

Set this attribute to `False` to disable triggering a tracing event for each source line.

frame.f_trace_opcodes

Set this attribute to `True` to allow per-opcode events to be requested. Note that this may lead to undefined interpreter behaviour if exceptions raised by the trace function escape to the function being traced.

frame.f_lineno

The current line number of the frame – writing to this from within a trace function jumps to the given line (only for the bottom-most frame). A debugger can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next Statement) by writing to this attribute.

##### 3.2.13.2.3. Frame object methods

Frame objects support one method:

frame.clear()

  This method clears all references to local variables held by the frame. Also, if the frame belonged to a generator, the generator is finalized. This helps break reference cycles involving frame objects (for example when catching an exception and storing its traceback for later use).

  `RuntimeError` is raised if the frame is currently executing or suspended.

  Добавлено в версии 3.4.

  Изменено в версии 3.13: Attempting to clear a suspended frame raises `RuntimeError` (as has always been the case for executing frames).

#### 3.2.13.3. Traceback objects

Traceback objects represent the stack trace of an exception. A traceback object is implicitly created when an exception occurs, and may also be explicitly created by calling `types.TracebackType`.

Изменено в версии 3.7: Traceback objects can now be explicitly instantiated from Python code.

For implicitly created tracebacks, when the search for an exception handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound level a traceback object is inserted in front of the current traceback. When an exception handler is entered, the stack trace is made available to the program. (See section The try statement.) It is accessible as the third item of the tuple returned by `sys.exc_info()`, and as the `__traceback__` attribute of the caught exception.

When the program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is written (nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; if the interpreter is interactive, it is also made available to the user as `sys.last_traceback`.

For explicitly created tracebacks, it is up to the creator of the traceback to determine how the `tb_next` attributes should be linked to form a full stack trace.

Special read-only attributes:

traceback.tb_frame

Points to the execution frame of the current level.

Accessing this attribute raises an auditing event `object.__getattr__` with arguments `obj` and `"tb_frame"`.

traceback.tb_lineno

Gives the line number where the exception occurred

traceback.tb_lasti

Indicates the «precise instruction».

The line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ from the line number of its frame object if the exception occurred in a `try` statement with no matching except clause or with a `finally` clause.

traceback.tb_next

  The special writable attribute `tb_next` is the next level in the stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or `None` if there is no next level.

  Изменено в версии 3.7: This attribute is now writable

#### 3.2.13.4. Slice objects

Slice objects are used to represent slices for `__getitem__()` methods. They are also created by the built-in `slice()` function.

Добавлено в версии 3.15: The `slice()` type now supports subscription. For example, `slice[float]` may be used in type annotations to indicate a slice containing `float` objects.

Special read-only attributes: `start` is the lower bound; `stop` is the upper bound; `step` is the step value; each is `None` if omitted. These attributes can have any type.

Slice objects support one method:

slice.indices(self, length)

  This method takes a single integer argument length and computes information about the slice that the slice object would describe if applied to a sequence of length items. It returns a tuple of three integers; respectively these are the start and stop indices and the step or stride length of the slice. Missing or out-of-bounds indices are handled in a manner consistent with regular slices.

#### 3.2.13.5. Static method objects

Static method objects provide a way of defeating the transformation of function objects to method objects described above. A static method object is a wrapper around any other object, usually a user-defined method object. When a static method object is retrieved from a class or a class instance, the object actually returned is the wrapped object, which is not subject to any further transformation. Static method objects are also callable. Static method objects are created by the built-in `staticmethod()` constructor.

#### 3.2.13.6. Class method objects

A class method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper around another object that alters the way in which that object is retrieved from classes and class instances. The behaviour of class method objects upon such retrieval is described above, under «instance methods». Class method objects are created by the built-in `classmethod()` constructor.

## 3.3. Special method names

A class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special syntax (such as arithmetic operations or subscripting and slicing) by defining methods with special names. This is Python’s approach to operator overloading, allowing classes to define their own behavior with respect to language operators. For instance, if a class defines a method named `__getitem__()`, and `x` is an instance of this class, then `x[i]` is roughly equivalent to `type(x).__getitem__(x, i)`. Except where mentioned, attempts to execute an operation raise an exception when no appropriate method is defined (typically `AttributeError` or `TypeError`).

Setting a special method to `None` indicates that the corresponding operation is not available. For example, if a class sets `__iter__()` to `None`, the class is not iterable, so calling `iter()` on its instances will raise a `TypeError` (without falling back to `__getitem__()`). [2]

When implementing a class that emulates any built-in type, it is important that the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it makes sense for the object being modelled. For example, some sequences may work well with retrieval of individual elements, but extracting a slice may not make sense. (One example of this is the NodeList interface in the W3C’s Document Object Model.)

### 3.3.1. Basic customization

object.__new__(cls[, ...])

  Called to create a new instance of class cls. `__new__()` is a static method (special-cased so you need not declare it as such) that takes the class of which an instance was requested as its first argument. The remaining arguments are those passed to the object constructor expression (the call to the class). The return value of `__new__()` should be the new object instance (usually an instance of cls).

  Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by invoking the superclass’s `__new__()` method using `super().__new__(cls[, ...])` with appropriate arguments and then modifying the newly created instance as necessary before returning it.

  If `__new__()` is invoked during object construction and it returns an instance of cls, then the new instance’s `__init__()` method will be invoked like `__init__(self[, ...])`, where self is the new instance and the remaining arguments are the same as were passed to the object constructor.

  If `__new__()` does not return an instance of cls, then the new instance’s `__init__()` method will not be invoked.

  `__new__()` is intended mainly to allow subclasses of immutable types (like int, str, or tuple) to customize instance creation. It is also commonly overridden in custom metaclasses in order to customize class creation.

object.__init__(self[, ...])

  Called after the instance has been created (by `__new__()`), but before it is returned to the caller. The arguments are those passed to the class constructor expression. If a base class has an `__init__()` method, the derived class’s `__init__()` method, if any, must explicitly call it to ensure proper initialization of the base class part of the instance; for example: `super().__init__([args...])`.

  Because `__new__()` and `__init__()` work together in constructing objects (`__new__()` to create it, and `__init__()` to customize it), no non-`None` value may be returned by `__init__()`; doing so will cause a `TypeError` to be raised at runtime.

object.__del__(self)

  Called when the instance is about to be destroyed. This is also called a finalizer or (improperly) a destructor. If a base class has a `__del__()` method, the derived class’s `__del__()` method, if any, must explicitly call it to ensure proper deletion of the base class part of the instance.

  It is possible (though not recommended!) for the `__del__()` method to postpone destruction of the instance by creating a new reference to it. This is called object resurrection. It is implementation-dependent whether `__del__()` is called a second time when a resurrected object is about to be destroyed; the current CPython implementation only calls it once.

  It is not guaranteed that `__del__()` methods are called for objects that still exist when the interpreter exits. `weakref.finalize` provides a straightforward way to register a cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.

  Примечание

  `del x` doesn’t directly call `x.__del__()` — the former decrements the reference count for `x` by one, and the latter is only called when `x`’s reference count reaches zero.

  Деталь реализации CPython: It is possible for a reference cycle to prevent the reference count of an object from going to zero. In this case, the cycle will be later detected and deleted by the cyclic garbage collector. A common cause of reference cycles is when an exception has been caught in a local variable. The frame’s locals then reference the exception, which references its own traceback, which references the locals of all frames caught in the traceback.

  См. также

  Documentation for the `gc` module.

  Предупреждение

  Due to the precarious circumstances under which `__del__()` methods are invoked, exceptions that occur during their execution are ignored, and a warning is printed to `sys.stderr` instead. In particular:

  - `__del__()` can be invoked when arbitrary code is being executed, including from any arbitrary thread. If `__del__()` needs to take a lock or invoke any other blocking resource, it may deadlock as the resource may already be taken by the code that gets interrupted to execute `__del__()`.

  - `__del__()` can be executed during interpreter shutdown. As a consequence, the global variables it needs to access (including other modules) may already have been deleted or set to `None`. Python guarantees that globals whose name begins with a single underscore are deleted from their module before other globals are deleted; if no other references to such globals exist, this may help in assuring that imported modules are still available at the time when the `__del__()` method is called.

object.__repr__(self)

  Called by the `repr()` built-in function to compute the «official» string representation of an object. If at all possible, this should look like a valid Python expression that could be used to recreate an object with the same value (given an appropriate environment). If this is not possible, a string of the form `<...some useful description...>` should be returned. The return value must be a string object. If a class defines `__repr__()` but not `__str__()`, then `__repr__()` is also used when an «informal» string representation of instances of that class is required.

  This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the representation is information-rich and unambiguous. A default implementation is provided by the `object` class itself.

object.__str__(self)

  Called by `str(object)`, the default `__format__()` implementation, and the built-in function `print()`, to compute the «informal» or nicely printable string representation of an object. The return value must be a str object.

  This method differs from `object.__repr__()` in that there is no expectation that `__str__()` return a valid Python expression: a more convenient or concise representation can be used.

  The default implementation defined by the built-in type `object` calls `object.__repr__()`.

object.__bytes__(self)

  Called by bytes to compute a byte-string representation of an object. This should return a `bytes` object. The `object` class itself does not provide this method.

object.__format__(self, format_spec)

  Called by the `format()` built-in function, and by extension, evaluation of formatted string literals and the `str.format()` method, to produce a «formatted» string representation of an object. The format_spec argument is a string that contains a description of the formatting options desired. The interpretation of the format_spec argument is up to the type implementing `__format__()`, however most classes will either delegate formatting to one of the built-in types, or use a similar formatting option syntax.

  See Format specification mini-language for a description of the standard formatting syntax.

  The return value must be a string object.

  The default implementation by the `object` class should be given an empty format_spec string. It delegates to `__str__()`.

  Изменено в версии 3.4: The __format__ method of `object` itself raises a `TypeError` if passed any non-empty string.

  Изменено в версии 3.7: `object.__format__(x, '')` is now equivalent to `str(x)` rather than `format(str(x), '')`.

object.__lt__(self, other)
object.__le__(self, other)
object.__eq__(self, other)
object.__ne__(self, other)
object.__gt__(self, other)
object.__ge__(self, other)

  These are the so-called «rich comparison» methods. The correspondence between operator symbols and method names is as follows: `x<y` calls `x.__lt__(y)`, `x<=y` calls `x.__le__(y)`, `x==y` calls `x.__eq__(y)`, `x!=y` calls `x.__ne__(y)`, `x>y` calls `x.__gt__(y)`, and `x>=y` calls `x.__ge__(y)`.

  A rich comparison method may return the singleton `NotImplemented` if it does not implement the operation for a given pair of arguments. By convention, `False` and `True` are returned for a successful comparison. However, these methods can return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a Boolean context (e.g., in the condition of an `if` statement), Python will call `bool()` on the value to determine if the result is true or false.

  By default, `object` implements `__eq__()` by using `is`, returning `NotImplemented` in the case of a false comparison: `True if x is y else NotImplemented`. For `__ne__()`, by default it delegates to `__eq__()` and inverts the result unless it is `NotImplemented`. There are no other implied relationships among the comparison operators or default implementations; for example, the truth of `(x<y or x==y)` does not imply `x<=y`. To automatically generate ordering operations from a single root operation, see `@functools.total_ordering`.

  By default, the `object` class provides implementations consistent with Value comparisons: equality compares according to object identity, and order comparisons raise `TypeError`. Each default method may generate these results directly, but may also return `NotImplemented`.

  See the paragraph on `__hash__()` for some important notes on creating hashable objects which support custom comparison operations and are usable as dictionary keys.

  There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used when the left argument does not support the operation but the right argument does); rather, `__lt__()` and `__gt__()` are each other’s reflection, `__le__()` and `__ge__()` are each other’s reflection, and `__eq__()` and `__ne__()` are their own reflection. If the operands are of different types, and the right operand’s type is a direct or indirect subclass of the left operand’s type, the reflected method of the right operand has priority, otherwise the left operand’s method has priority. Virtual subclassing is not considered.

  When no appropriate method returns any value other than `NotImplemented`, the `==` and `!=` operators will fall back to `is` and `is not`, respectively.

object.__hash__(self)

  Called by built-in function `hash()` and for operations on members of hashed collections including `set`, `frozenset`, `dict`, and `frozendict`. The `__hash__()` method should return an integer. The only required property is that objects which compare equal have the same hash value; it is advised to mix together the hash values of the components of the object that also play a part in comparison of objects by packing them into a tuple and hashing the tuple. Example:

      def __hash__(self):
          return hash((self.name, self.nick, self.color))

  Примечание

  `hash()` truncates the value returned from an object’s custom `__hash__()` method to the size of a `Py_ssize_t`. This is typically 8 bytes on 64-bit builds and 4 bytes on 32-bit builds. If an object’s `__hash__()` must interoperate on builds of different bit sizes, be sure to check the width on all supported builds. An easy way to do this is with `python -c "import sys; print(sys.hash_info.width)"`.

  If a class does not define an `__eq__()` method it should not define a `__hash__()` operation either; if it defines `__eq__()` but not `__hash__()`, its instances will not be usable as items in hashable collections. If a class defines mutable objects and implements an `__eq__()` method, it should not implement `__hash__()`, since the implementation of hashable collections requires that a key’s hash value is immutable (if the object’s hash value changes, it will be in the wrong hash bucket).

  User-defined classes have `__eq__()` and `__hash__()` methods by default (inherited from the `object` class); with them, all objects compare unequal (except with themselves) and `x.__hash__()` returns an appropriate value such that `x == y` implies both that `x is y` and `hash(x) == hash(y)`.

  A class that overrides `__eq__()` and does not define `__hash__()` will have its `__hash__()` implicitly set to `None`. When the `__hash__()` method of a class is `None`, instances of the class will raise an appropriate `TypeError` when a program attempts to retrieve their hash value, and will also be correctly identified as unhashable when checking `isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Hashable)`.

  If a class that overrides `__eq__()` needs to retain the implementation of `__hash__()` from a parent class, the interpreter must be told this explicitly by setting `__hash__ = <ParentClass>.__hash__`.

  If a class that does not override `__eq__()` wishes to suppress hash support, it should include `__hash__ = None` in the class definition. A class which defines its own `__hash__()` that explicitly raises a `TypeError` would be incorrectly identified as hashable by an `isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Hashable)` call.

  Примечание

  By default, the `__hash__()` values of str and bytes objects are «salted» with an unpredictable random value. Although they remain constant within an individual Python process, they are not predictable between repeated invocations of Python.

  This is intended to provide protection against a denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that exploit the worst case performance of a dict insertion, O(n2) complexity. See https://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details.

  Changing hash values affects the iteration order of sets. Python has never made guarantees about this ordering (and it typically varies between 32-bit and 64-bit builds).

  See also `PYTHONHASHSEED`.

  Изменено в версии 3.3: Hash randomization is enabled by default.

object.__bool__(self)

  Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation `bool()`; should return `False` or `True`. When this method is not defined, `__len__()` is called, if it is defined, and the object is considered true if its result is nonzero. If a class defines neither `__len__()` nor `__bool__()` (which is true of the `object` class itself), all its instances are considered true.

### 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access

The following methods can be defined to customize the meaning of attribute access (use of, assignment to, or deletion of `x.name`) for class instances.

object.__getattr__(self, name)

  Called when the default attribute access fails with an `AttributeError` (either `__getattribute__()` raises an `AttributeError` because name is not an instance attribute or an attribute in the class tree for `self`; or `__get__()` of a name property raises `AttributeError`). This method should either return the (computed) attribute value or raise an `AttributeError` exception. The `object` class itself does not provide this method.

  Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism, `__getattr__()` is not called. (This is an intentional asymmetry between `__getattr__()` and `__setattr__()`.) This is done both for efficiency reasons and because otherwise `__getattr__()` would have no way to access other attributes of the instance. Note that at least for instance variables, you can take total control by not inserting any values in the instance attribute dictionary (but instead inserting them in another object). See the `__getattribute__()` method below for a way to actually get total control over attribute access.

object.__getattribute__(self, name)

  Called unconditionally to implement attribute accesses for instances of the class. If the class also defines `__getattr__()`, the latter will not be called unless `__getattribute__()` either calls it explicitly or raises an `AttributeError`. This method should return the (computed) attribute value or raise an `AttributeError` exception. In order to avoid infinite recursion in this method, its implementation should always call the base class method with the same name to access any attributes it needs, for example, `object.__getattribute__(self, name)`.

  Примечание

  This method may still be bypassed when looking up special methods as the result of implicit invocation via language syntax or built-in functions. See Special method lookup.

  For certain sensitive attribute accesses, raises an auditing event `object.__getattr__` with arguments `obj` and `name`.

object.__setattr__(self, name, value)

  Called when an attribute assignment is attempted. This is called instead of the normal mechanism (i.e. store the value in the instance dictionary). name is the attribute name, value is the value to be assigned to it.

  If `__setattr__()` wants to assign to an instance attribute, it should call the base class method with the same name, for example, `object.__setattr__(self, name, value)`.

  For certain sensitive attribute assignments, raises an auditing event `object.__setattr__` with arguments `obj`, `name`, `value`.

object.__delattr__(self, name)

  Like `__setattr__()` but for attribute deletion instead of assignment. This should only be implemented if `del obj.name` is meaningful for the object.

  For certain sensitive attribute deletions, raises an auditing event `object.__delattr__` with arguments `obj` and `name`.

object.__dir__(self)

  Called when `dir()` is called on the object. An iterable must be returned. `dir()` converts the returned iterable to a list and sorts it.

#### 3.3.2.1. Customizing module attribute access

module.__getattr__()
module.__dir__()

Special names `__getattr__` and `__dir__` can be also used to customize access to module attributes. The `__getattr__` function at the module level should accept one argument which is the name of an attribute and return the computed value or raise an `AttributeError`. If an attribute is not found on a module object through the normal lookup, i.e. `object.__getattribute__()`, then `__getattr__` is searched in the module `__dict__` before raising an `AttributeError`. If found, it is called with the attribute name and the result is returned.

The `__dir__` function should accept no arguments, and return an iterable of strings that represents the names accessible on module. If present, this function overrides the standard `dir()` search on a module.

module.__class__

For a more fine grained customization of the module behavior (setting attributes, properties, etc.), one can set the `__class__` attribute of a module object to a subclass of `types.ModuleType`. For example:

    import sys
    from types import ModuleType

    class VerboseModule(ModuleType):
        def __repr__(self):
            return f'Verbose {self.__name__}'

        def __setattr__(self, attr, value):
            print(f'Setting {attr}...')
            super().__setattr__(attr, value)

    sys.modules[__name__].__class__ = VerboseModule

Примечание

Defining module `__getattr__` and setting module `__class__` only affect lookups made using the attribute access syntax – directly accessing the module globals (whether by code within the module, or via a reference to the module’s globals dictionary) is unaffected.

Изменено в версии 3.5: `__class__` module attribute is now writable.

Добавлено в версии 3.7: `__getattr__` and `__dir__` module attributes.

См. также

PEP 562 - Module __getattr__ and __dir__

  Describes the `__getattr__` and `__dir__` functions on modules.

#### 3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors

The following methods only apply when an instance of the class containing the method (a so-called descriptor class) appears in an owner class (the descriptor must be in either the owner’s class dictionary or in the class dictionary for one of its parents). In the examples below, «the attribute» refers to the attribute whose name is the key of the property in the owner class“ `__dict__`. The `object` class itself does not implement any of these protocols.

object.__get__(self, instance, owner=None)

  Called to get the attribute of the owner class (class attribute access) or of an instance of that class (instance attribute access). The optional owner argument is the owner class, while instance is the instance that the attribute was accessed through, or `None` when the attribute is accessed through the owner.

  This method should return the computed attribute value or raise an `AttributeError` exception.

  PEP 252 specifies that `__get__()` is callable with one or two arguments. Python’s own built-in descriptors support this specification; however, it is likely that some third-party tools have descriptors that require both arguments. Python’s own `__getattribute__()` implementation always passes in both arguments whether they are required or not.

object.__set__(self, instance, value)

  Called to set the attribute on an instance instance of the owner class to a new value, value.

  Note, adding `__set__()` or `__delete__()` changes the kind of descriptor to a «data descriptor». See Invoking Descriptors for more details.

object.__delete__(self, instance)

  Called to delete the attribute on an instance instance of the owner class.

Instances of descriptors may also have the `__objclass__` attribute present:

object.__objclass__

  The attribute `__objclass__` is interpreted by the `inspect` module as specifying the class where this object was defined (setting this appropriately can assist in runtime introspection of dynamic class attributes). For callables, it may indicate that an instance of the given type (or a subclass) is expected or required as the first positional argument (for example, CPython sets this attribute for unbound methods that are implemented in C).

#### 3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors

In general, a descriptor is an object attribute with «binding behavior», one whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the descriptor protocol: `__get__()`, `__set__()`, and `__delete__()`. If any of those methods are defined for an object, it is said to be a descriptor.

The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the attribute from an object’s dictionary. For instance, `a.x` has a lookup chain starting with `a.__dict__['x']`, then `type(a).__dict__['x']`, and continuing through the base classes of `type(a)` excluding metaclasses.

However, if the looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor methods, then Python may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor method instead. Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on which descriptor methods were defined and how they were called.

The starting point for descriptor invocation is a binding, `a.x`. How the arguments are assembled depends on `a`:

Direct Call

  The simplest and least common call is when user code directly invokes a descriptor method: `x.__get__(a)`.

Instance Binding

  If binding to an object instance, `a.x` is transformed into the call: `type(a).__dict__['x'].__get__(a, type(a))`.

Class Binding

  If binding to a class, `A.x` is transformed into the call: `A.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, A)`.

Super Binding

  A dotted lookup such as `super(A, a).x` searches `a.__class__.__mro__` for a base class `B` following `A` and then returns `B.__dict__['x'].__get__(a, A)`. If not a descriptor, `x` is returned unchanged.

For instance bindings, the precedence of descriptor invocation depends on which descriptor methods are defined. A descriptor can define any combination of `__get__()`, `__set__()` and `__delete__()`. If it does not define `__get__()`, then accessing the attribute will return the descriptor object itself unless there is a value in the object’s instance dictionary. If the descriptor defines `__set__()` and/or `__delete__()`, it is a data descriptor; if it defines neither, it is a non-data descriptor. Normally, data descriptors define both `__get__()` and `__set__()`, while non-data descriptors have just the `__get__()` method. Data descriptors with `__get__()` and `__set__()` (and/or `__delete__()`) defined always override a redefinition in an instance dictionary. In contrast, non-data descriptors can be overridden by instances.

Python methods (including those decorated with `@staticmethod` and `@classmethod`) are implemented as non-data descriptors. Accordingly, instances can redefine and override methods. This allows individual instances to acquire behaviors that differ from other instances of the same class.

The `@property` decorator is implemented as a data descriptor. Accordingly, instances cannot override the behavior of a property.

#### 3.3.2.4. __slots__

__slots__ allow us to explicitly declare data members (like properties) and deny the creation of `__dict__` and __weakref__ (unless explicitly declared in __slots__ or available in a parent.)

The space saved over using `__dict__` can be significant. Attribute lookup speed can be significantly improved as well.

object.__slots__

  This class variable can be assigned a string, iterable, or sequence of strings with variable names used by instances. __slots__ reserves space for the declared variables and prevents the automatic creation of `__dict__` and __weakref__ for each instance.

Notes on using __slots__:

- When inheriting from a class without __slots__, the `__dict__` and __weakref__ attribute of the instances will always be accessible.

- Without a `__dict__` variable, instances cannot be assigned new variables not listed in the __slots__ definition. Attempts to assign to an unlisted variable name raises `AttributeError`. If dynamic assignment of new variables is desired, then add `'__dict__'` to the sequence of strings in the __slots__ declaration.

- Without a __weakref__ variable for each instance, classes defining __slots__ do not support `weak references` to its instances. If weak reference support is needed, then add `'__weakref__'` to the sequence of strings in the __slots__ declaration.

- __slots__ are implemented at the class level by creating descriptors for each variable name. As a result, class attributes cannot be used to set default values for instance variables defined by __slots__; otherwise, the class attribute would overwrite the descriptor assignment.

- The action of a __slots__ declaration is not limited to the class where it is defined. __slots__ declared in parents are available in child classes. However, instances of a child subclass will get a `__dict__` and __weakref__ unless the subclass also defines __slots__ (which should only contain names of any additional slots).

- If a class defines a slot also defined in a base class, the instance variable defined by the base class slot is inaccessible (except by retrieving its descriptor directly from the base class). This renders the meaning of the program undefined. In the future, a check may be added to prevent this.

- `TypeError` will be raised if __slots__ other than __dict__ and __weakref__ are defined for a class derived from a `"variable-length" built-in type` such as `int`, `bytes`, and `type`, except `tuple`.

- Any non-string iterable may be assigned to __slots__.

- If a `dictionary` is used to assign __slots__, the dictionary keys will be used as the slot names. The values of the dictionary can be used to provide per-attribute docstrings that will be recognised by `inspect.getdoc()` and displayed in the output of `help()`.

- `__class__` assignment works only if both classes have the same __slots__.

- Multiple inheritance with multiple slotted parent classes can be used, but only one parent is allowed to have attributes created by slots (the other bases must have empty slot layouts) - violations raise `TypeError`.

- If an iterator is used for __slots__ then a descriptor is created for each of the iterator’s values. However, the __slots__ attribute will be an empty iterator.

Изменено в версии 3.15: Allowed defining the __dict__ and __weakref__ __slots__ for any class. Allowed defining any __slots__ for a class derived from `tuple`.

### 3.3.3. Customizing class creation

Whenever a class inherits from another class, `__init_subclass__()` is called on the parent class. This way, it is possible to write classes which change the behavior of subclasses. This is closely related to class decorators, but where class decorators only affect the specific class they’re applied to, `__init_subclass__` solely applies to future subclasses of the class defining the method.

classmethod object.__init_subclass__(cls)

  This method is called whenever the containing class is subclassed. cls is then the new subclass. If defined as a normal instance method, this method is implicitly converted to a class method.

  Keyword arguments which are given to a new class are passed to the parent class’s `__init_subclass__`. For compatibility with other classes using `__init_subclass__`, one should take out the needed keyword arguments and pass the others over to the base class, as in:

      class Philosopher:
          def __init_subclass__(cls, /, default_name, **kwargs):
              super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
              cls.default_name = default_name

      class AustralianPhilosopher(Philosopher, default_name="Bruce"):
          pass

  The default implementation `object.__init_subclass__` does nothing, but raises an error if it is called with any arguments.

  Примечание

  The metaclass hint `metaclass` is consumed by the rest of the type machinery, and is never passed to `__init_subclass__` implementations. The actual metaclass (rather than the explicit hint) can be accessed as `type(cls)`.

  Добавлено в версии 3.6.

When a class is created, `type.__new__()` scans the class variables and makes callbacks to those with a `__set_name__()` hook.

object.__set_name__(self, owner, name)

  Automatically called at the time the owning class owner is created. The object has been assigned to name in that class:

      class A:
          x = C()  # Automatically calls: x.__set_name__(A, 'x')

  If the class variable is assigned after the class is created, `__set_name__()` will not be called automatically. If needed, `__set_name__()` can be called directly:

      class A:
         pass

      c = C()
      A.x = c                  # The hook is not called
      c.__set_name__(A, 'x')   # Manually invoke the hook

  See Creating the class object for more details.

  Добавлено в версии 3.6.

#### 3.3.3.1. Metaclasses

By default, classes are constructed using `type()`. The class body is executed in a new namespace and the class name is bound locally to the result of `type(name, bases, namespace)`.

The class creation process can be customized by passing the `metaclass` keyword argument in the class definition line, or by inheriting from an existing class that included such an argument. In the following example, both `MyClass` and `MySubclass` are instances of `Meta`:

    class Meta(type):
        pass

    class MyClass(metaclass=Meta):
        pass

    class MySubclass(MyClass):
        pass

Any other keyword arguments that are specified in the class definition are passed through to all metaclass operations described below.

When a class definition is executed, the following steps occur:

- MRO entries are resolved;

- the appropriate metaclass is determined;

- the class namespace is prepared;

- the class body is executed;

- the class object is created.

#### 3.3.3.2. Resolving MRO entries

object.__mro_entries__(self, bases)

  If a base that appears in a class definition is not an instance of `type`, then an `__mro_entries__()` method is searched on the base. If an `__mro_entries__()` method is found, the base is substituted with the result of a call to `__mro_entries__()` when creating the class. The method is called with the original bases tuple passed to the bases parameter, and must return a tuple of classes that will be used instead of the base. The returned tuple may be empty: in these cases, the original base is ignored.

См. также

`types.resolve_bases()`

  Dynamically resolve bases that are not instances of `type`.

`types.get_original_bases()`

  Retrieve a class’s «original bases» prior to modifications by `__mro_entries__()`.

PEP 560

  Core support for typing module and generic types.

#### 3.3.3.3. Determining the appropriate metaclass

The appropriate metaclass for a class definition is determined as follows:

- if no bases and no explicit metaclass are given, then `type()` is used;

- if an explicit metaclass is given and it is not an instance of `type()`, then it is used directly as the metaclass;

- if an instance of `type()` is given as the explicit metaclass, or bases are defined, then the most derived metaclass is used.

The most derived metaclass is selected from the explicitly specified metaclass (if any) and the metaclasses (i.e. `type(cls)`) of all specified base classes. The most derived metaclass is one which is a subtype of all of these candidate metaclasses. If none of the candidate metaclasses meets that criterion, then the class definition will fail with `TypeError`.

#### 3.3.3.4. Preparing the class namespace

Once the appropriate metaclass has been identified, then the class namespace is prepared. If the metaclass has a `__prepare__` attribute, it is called as `namespace = metaclass.__prepare__(name, bases, **kwds)` (where the additional keyword arguments, if any, come from the class definition). The `__prepare__` method should be implemented as a `classmethod`. The namespace returned by `__prepare__` is passed in to `__new__`, but when the final class object is created the namespace is copied into a new `dict`.

If the metaclass has no `__prepare__` attribute, then the class namespace is initialised as an empty ordered mapping.

См. также

PEP 3115 - Metaclasses in Python 3000

  Introduced the `__prepare__` namespace hook

#### 3.3.3.5. Executing the class body

The class body is executed (approximately) as `exec(body, globals(), namespace)`. The key difference from a normal call to `exec()` is that lexical scoping allows the class body (including any methods) to reference names from the current and outer scopes when the class definition occurs inside a function.

However, even when the class definition occurs inside the function, methods defined inside the class still cannot see names defined at the class scope. Class variables must be accessed through the first parameter of instance or class methods, or through the implicit lexically scoped `__class__` reference described in the next section.

#### 3.3.3.6. Creating the class object

Once the class namespace has been populated by executing the class body, the class object is created by calling `metaclass(name, bases, namespace, **kwds)` (the additional keywords passed here are the same as those passed to `__prepare__`).

This class object is the one that will be referenced by the zero-argument form of `super()`. `__class__` is an implicit closure reference created by the compiler if any methods in a class body refer to either `__class__` or `super`. This allows the zero argument form of `super()` to correctly identify the class being defined based on lexical scoping, while the class or instance that was used to make the current call is identified based on the first argument passed to the method.

Деталь реализации CPython: In CPython 3.6 and later, the `__class__` cell is passed to the metaclass as a `__classcell__` entry in the class namespace. If present, this must be propagated up to the `type.__new__` call in order for the class to be initialised correctly. Failing to do so will result in a `RuntimeError` in Python 3.8.

When using the default metaclass `type`, or any metaclass that ultimately calls `type.__new__`, the following additional customization steps are invoked after creating the class object:

1. The `type.__new__` method collects all of the attributes in the class namespace that define a `__set_name__()` method;

2. Those `__set_name__` methods are called with the class being defined and the assigned name of that particular attribute;

3. The `__init_subclass__()` hook is called on the immediate parent of the new class in its method resolution order.

After the class object is created, it is passed to the class decorators included in the class definition (if any) and the resulting object is bound in the local namespace as the defined class.

When a new class is created by `type.__new__`, the object provided as the namespace parameter is copied to a new ordered mapping and the original object is discarded. The new copy is wrapped in a read-only proxy, which becomes the `__dict__` attribute of the class object.

См. также

PEP 3135 - New super

  Describes the implicit `__class__` closure reference

#### 3.3.3.7. Uses for metaclasses

The potential uses for metaclasses are boundless. Some ideas that have been explored include enum, logging, interface checking, automatic delegation, automatic property creation, proxies, frameworks, and automatic resource locking/synchronization.

### 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks

The following methods are used to override the default behavior of the `isinstance()` and `issubclass()` built-in functions.

In particular, the metaclass `abc.ABCMeta` implements these methods in order to allow the addition of Abstract Base Classes (ABCs) as «virtual base classes» to any class or type (including built-in types), including other ABCs.

type.__instancecheck__(self, instance)

  Return true if instance should be considered a (direct or indirect) instance of class. If defined, called to implement `isinstance(instance, class)`.

type.__subclasscheck__(self, subclass)

  Return true if subclass should be considered a (direct or indirect) subclass of class. If defined, called to implement `issubclass(subclass, class)`.

Note that these methods are looked up on the type (metaclass) of a class. They cannot be defined as class methods in the actual class. This is consistent with the lookup of special methods that are called on instances, only in this case the instance is itself a class.

См. также

PEP 3119 - Introducing Abstract Base Classes

  Includes the specification for customizing `isinstance()` and `issubclass()` behavior through `__instancecheck__()` and `__subclasscheck__()`, with motivation for this functionality in the context of adding Abstract Base Classes (see the `abc` module) to the language.

### 3.3.5. Emulating generic types

When using type annotations, it is often useful to parameterize a generic type using Python’s square-brackets notation. For example, the annotation `list[int]` might be used to signify a `list` in which all the elements are of type `int`.

См. также

PEP 484 - Type Hints

  Introducing Python’s framework for type annotations

Generic Alias Types

  Documentation for objects representing parameterized generic classes

Generics, user-defined generics and `typing.Generic`

  Documentation on how to implement generic classes that can be parameterized at runtime and understood by static type-checkers.

A class can generally only be parameterized if it defines the special class method `__class_getitem__()`.

classmethod object.__class_getitem__(cls, key)

  Return an object representing the specialization of a generic class by type arguments found in key.

  When defined on a class, `__class_getitem__()` is automatically a class method. As such, there is no need for it to be decorated with `@classmethod` when it is defined.

#### 3.3.5.1. The purpose of __class_getitem__

The purpose of `__class_getitem__()` is to allow runtime parameterization of standard-library generic classes in order to more easily apply type hints to these classes.

To implement custom generic classes that can be parameterized at runtime and understood by static type-checkers, users should either inherit from a standard library class that already implements `__class_getitem__()`, or inherit from `typing.Generic`, which has its own implementation of `__class_getitem__()`.

Custom implementations of `__class_getitem__()` on classes defined outside of the standard library may not be understood by third-party type-checkers such as mypy. Using `__class_getitem__()` on any class for purposes other than type hinting is discouraged.

#### 3.3.5.2. __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__

Usually, the subscription of an object using square brackets will call the `__getitem__()` instance method defined on the object’s class. However, if the object being subscribed is itself a class, the class method `__class_getitem__()` may be called instead. `__class_getitem__()` should return a GenericAlias object if it is properly defined.

Presented with the expression `obj[x]`, the Python interpreter follows something like the following process to decide whether `__getitem__()` or `__class_getitem__()` should be called:

    from inspect import isclass

    def subscribe(obj, x):
        """Return the result of the expression 'obj[x]'"""

        class_of_obj = type(obj)

        # If the class of obj defines __getitem__,
        # call class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)
        if hasattr(class_of_obj, '__getitem__'):
            return class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)

        # Else, if obj is a class and defines __class_getitem__,
        # call obj.__class_getitem__(x)
        elif isclass(obj) and hasattr(obj, '__class_getitem__'):
            return obj.__class_getitem__(x)

        # Else, raise an exception
        else:
            raise TypeError(
                f"'{class_of_obj.__name__}' object is not subscriptable"
            )

In Python, all classes are themselves instances of other classes. The class of a class is known as that class’s metaclass, and most classes have the `type` class as their metaclass. `type` does not define `__getitem__()`, meaning that expressions such as `list[int]`, `dict[str, float]` and `tuple[str, bytes]` all result in `__class_getitem__()` being called:

    >>> # list has class "type" as its metaclass, like most classes:
    >>> type(list)
    <class 'type'>
    >>> type(dict) == type(list) == type(tuple) == type(str) == type(bytes)
    True
    >>> # "list[int]" calls "list.__class_getitem__(int)"
    >>> list[int]
    list[int]
    >>> # list.__class_getitem__ returns a GenericAlias object:
    >>> type(list[int])
    <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

However, if a class has a custom metaclass that defines `__getitem__()`, subscribing the class may result in different behaviour. An example of this can be found in the `enum` module:

    >>> from enum import Enum
    >>> class Menu(Enum):
    ...     """A breakfast menu"""
    ...     SPAM = 'spam'
    ...     BACON = 'bacon'
    ...
    >>> # Enum classes have a custom metaclass:
    >>> type(Menu)
    <class 'enum.EnumMeta'>
    >>> # EnumMeta defines __getitem__,
    >>> # so __class_getitem__ is not called,
    >>> # and the result is not a GenericAlias object:
    >>> Menu['SPAM']
    <Menu.SPAM: 'spam'>
    >>> type(Menu['SPAM'])
    <enum 'Menu'>

См. также

PEP 560 - Core Support for typing module and generic types

  Introducing `__class_getitem__()`, and outlining when a subscription results in `__class_getitem__()` being called instead of `__getitem__()`

### 3.3.6. Emulating callable objects

object.__call__(self[, args...])

  Called when the instance is «called» as a function; if this method is defined, `x(arg1, arg2, ...)` roughly translates to `type(x).__call__(x, arg1, ...)`. The `object` class itself does not provide this method.

### 3.3.7. Emulating container types

The following methods can be defined to implement container objects. None of them are provided by the `object` class itself. Containers usually are sequences (such as `lists` or `tuples`) or mappings (like dictionaries), but can represent other containers as well. The first set of methods is used either to emulate a sequence or to emulate a mapping; the difference is that for a sequence, the allowable keys should be the integers k for which `0 <= k < N` where N is the length of the sequence, or `slice` objects, which define a range of items. It is also recommended that mappings provide the methods `keys()`, `values()`, `items()`, `get()`, `clear()`, `setdefault()`, `pop()`, `popitem()`, `copy()`, and `update()` behaving similar to those for Python’s standard `dictionary` objects. The `collections.abc` module provides a `MutableMapping` abstract base class to help create those methods from a base set of `__getitem__()`, `__setitem__()`, `__delitem__()`, and `keys()`.

Mutable sequences should provide methods `append()`, `clear()`, `count()`, `extend()`, `index()`, `insert()`, `pop()`, `remove()`, and `reverse()`, like Python standard `list` objects. Finally, sequence types should implement addition (meaning concatenation) and multiplication (meaning repetition) by defining the methods `__add__()`, `__radd__()`, `__iadd__()`, `__mul__()`, `__rmul__()` and `__imul__()` described below; they should not define other numerical operators.

It is recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the `__contains__()` method to allow efficient use of the `in` operator; for mappings, `in` should search the mapping’s keys; for sequences, it should search through the values. It is further recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the `__iter__()` method to allow efficient iteration through the container; for mappings, `__iter__()` should iterate through the object’s keys; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.

object.__len__(self)

  Called to implement the built-in function `len()`. Should return the length of the object, an integer `>=` 0. Also, an object that doesn’t define a `__bool__()` method and whose `__len__()` method returns zero is considered to be false in a Boolean context.

  Деталь реализации CPython: In CPython, the length is required to be at most `sys.maxsize`. If the length is larger than `sys.maxsize` some features (such as `len()`) may raise `OverflowError`. To prevent raising `OverflowError` by truth value testing, an object must define a `__bool__()` method.

object.__length_hint__(self)

  Called to implement `operator.length_hint()`. Should return an estimated length for the object (which may be greater or less than the actual length). The length must be an integer `>=` 0. The return value may also be `NotImplemented`, which is treated the same as if the `__length_hint__` method didn’t exist at all. This method is purely an optimization and is never required for correctness.

  Добавлено в версии 3.4.

object.__getitem__(self, subscript)

  Called to implement subscription, that is, `self[subscript]`. See Subscriptions and slicings for details on the syntax.

  There are two types of built-in objects that support subscription via `__getitem__()`:

  - sequences, where subscript (also called index) should be an integer or a `slice` object. See the sequence documentation for the expected behavior, including handling `slice` objects and negative indices.

  - mappings, where subscript is also called the key. See mapping documentation for the expected behavior.

  If subscript is of an inappropriate type, `__getitem__()` should raise `TypeError`. If subscript has an inappropriate value, `__getitem__()` should raise an `LookupError` or one of its subclasses (`IndexError` for sequences; `KeyError` for mappings).

  Примечание

  Slicing is handled by `__getitem__()`, `__setitem__()`, and `__delitem__()`. A call like

      a[1:2] = b

  is translated to

      a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b

  and so forth. Missing slice items are always filled in with `None`.

  Примечание

  The sequence iteration protocol (used, for example, in `for` loops), expects that an `IndexError` will be raised for illegal indexes to allow proper detection of the end of a sequence.

  Примечание

  When subscripting a class, the special class method `__class_getitem__()` may be called instead of `__getitem__()`. See __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__ for more details.

object.__setitem__(self, key, value)

  Called to implement assignment to `self[key]`. Same note as for `__getitem__()`. This should only be implemented for mappings if the objects support changes to the values for keys, or if new keys can be added, or for sequences if elements can be replaced. The same exceptions should be raised for improper key values as for the `__getitem__()` method.

object.__delitem__(self, key)

  Called to implement deletion of `self[key]`. Same note as for `__getitem__()`. This should only be implemented for mappings if the objects support removal of keys, or for sequences if elements can be removed from the sequence. The same exceptions should be raised for improper key values as for the `__getitem__()` method.

object.__missing__(self, key)

  Called by `dict`.`__getitem__()` to implement `self[key]` for dict subclasses when key is not in the dictionary.

object.__iter__(self)

  This method is called when an iterator is required for a container. This method should return a new iterator object that can iterate over all the objects in the container. For mappings, it should iterate over the keys of the container.

object.__reversed__(self)

  Called (if present) by the `reversed()` built-in to implement reverse iteration. It should return a new iterator object that iterates over all the objects in the container in reverse order.

  If the `__reversed__()` method is not provided, the `reversed()` built-in will fall back to using the sequence protocol (`__len__()` and `__getitem__()`). Objects that support the sequence protocol should only provide `__reversed__()` if they can provide an implementation that is more efficient than the one provided by `reversed()`.

The membership test operators (`in` and `not in`) are normally implemented as an iteration through a container. However, container objects can supply the following special method with a more efficient implementation, which also does not require the object be iterable.

object.__contains__(self, item)

  Called to implement membership test operators. Should return true if item is in self, false otherwise. For mapping objects, this should consider the keys of the mapping rather than the values or the key-item pairs.

  For objects that don’t define `__contains__()`, the membership test first tries iteration via `__iter__()`, then the old sequence iteration protocol via `__getitem__()`, see this section in the language reference.

### 3.3.8. Emulating numeric types

The following methods can be defined to emulate numeric objects. Methods corresponding to operations that are not supported by the particular kind of number implemented (e.g., bitwise operations for non-integral numbers) should be left undefined.

object.__add__(self, other)
object.__sub__(self, other)
object.__mul__(self, other)
object.__matmul__(self, other)
object.__truediv__(self, other)
object.__floordiv__(self, other)
object.__mod__(self, other)
object.__divmod__(self, other)
object.__pow__(self, other[, modulo])
object.__lshift__(self, other)
object.__rshift__(self, other)
object.__and__(self, other)
object.__xor__(self, other)
object.__or__(self, other)

  These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic operations (`+`, `-`, `*`, `@`, `/`, `//`, `%`, `divmod()`, `pow()`, `**`, `<<`, `>>`, `&`, `^`, `|`). For instance, to evaluate the expression `x + y`, where x is an instance of a class that has an `__add__()` method, `type(x).__add__(x, y)` is called. The `__divmod__()` method should be the equivalent to using `__floordiv__()` and `__mod__()`; it should not be related to `__truediv__()`. Note that `__pow__()` should be defined to accept an optional third argument if the three-argument version of the built-in `pow()` function is to be supported.

  If one of those methods does not support the operation with the supplied arguments, it should return `NotImplemented`.

object.__radd__(self, other)
object.__rsub__(self, other)
object.__rmul__(self, other)
object.__rmatmul__(self, other)
object.__rtruediv__(self, other)
object.__rfloordiv__(self, other)
object.__rmod__(self, other)
object.__rdivmod__(self, other)
object.__rpow__(self, other[, modulo])
object.__rlshift__(self, other)
object.__rrshift__(self, other)
object.__rand__(self, other)
object.__rxor__(self, other)
object.__ror__(self, other)

  These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic operations (`+`, `-`, `*`, `@`, `/`, `//`, `%`, `divmod()`, `pow()`, `**`, `<<`, `>>`, `&`, `^`, `|`) with reflected (swapped) operands. These functions are only called if the operands are of different types, when the left operand does not support the corresponding operation [3], or the right operand’s class is derived from the left operand’s class. [4] For instance, to evaluate the expression `x - y`, where y is an instance of a class that has an `__rsub__()` method, `type(y).__rsub__(y, x)` is called if `type(x).__sub__(x, y)` returns `NotImplemented` or `type(y)` is a subclass of `type(x)`. [5]

  Note that `__rpow__()` should be defined to accept an optional third argument if the three-argument version of the built-in `pow()` function is to be supported.

  Изменено в версии 3.14: Three-argument `pow()` now try calling `__rpow__()` if necessary. Previously it was only called in two-argument `pow()` and the binary power operator.

  Примечание

  If the right operand’s type is a subclass of the left operand’s type and that subclass provides a different implementation of the reflected method for the operation, this method will be called before the left operand’s non-reflected method. This behavior allows subclasses to override their ancestors“ operations.

object.__iadd__(self, other)
object.__isub__(self, other)
object.__imul__(self, other)
object.__imatmul__(self, other)
object.__itruediv__(self, other)
object.__ifloordiv__(self, other)
object.__imod__(self, other)
object.__ipow__(self, other[, modulo])
object.__ilshift__(self, other)
object.__irshift__(self, other)
object.__iand__(self, other)
object.__ixor__(self, other)
object.__ior__(self, other)

  These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic assignments (`+=`, `-=`, `*=`, `@=`, `/=`, `//=`, `%=`, `**=`, `<<=`, `>>=`, `&=`, `^=`, `|=`). These methods should attempt to do the operation in-place (modifying self) and return the result (which could be, but does not have to be, self). If a specific method is not defined, or if that method returns `NotImplemented`, the augmented assignment falls back to the normal methods. For instance, if x is an instance of a class with an `__iadd__()` method, `x += y` is equivalent to `x = x.__iadd__(y)` . If `__iadd__()` does not exist, or if `x.__iadd__(y)` returns `NotImplemented`, `x.__add__(y)` and `y.__radd__(x)` are considered, as with the evaluation of `x + y`. In certain situations, augmented assignment can result in unexpected errors (see Why does a_tuple[i] += [„item“] raise an exception when the addition works?), but this behavior is in fact part of the data model.

object.__neg__(self)
object.__pos__(self)
object.__abs__(self)
object.__invert__(self)

  Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (`-`, `+`, `abs()` and `~`).

object.__complex__(self)
object.__int__(self)
object.__float__(self)

  Called to implement the built-in functions `complex()`, `int()` and `float()`. Should return a value of the appropriate type.

object.__index__(self)

  Called to implement `operator.index()`, and whenever Python needs to losslessly convert the numeric object to an integer object (such as in slicing, or in the built-in `bin()`, `hex()` and `oct()` functions). Presence of this method indicates that the numeric object is an integer type. Must return an integer.

  If `__int__()`, `__float__()` and `__complex__()` are not defined then corresponding built-in functions `int()`, `float()` and `complex()` fall back to `__index__()`.

object.__round__(self[, ndigits])
object.__trunc__(self)
object.__floor__(self)
object.__ceil__(self)

  Called to implement the built-in function `round()` and `math` functions `trunc()`, `floor()` and `ceil()`. Unless ndigits is passed to `__round__()` all these methods should return the value of the object truncated to an `Integral` (typically an `int`).

  Изменено в версии 3.14: `int()` no longer delegates to the `__trunc__()` method.

### 3.3.9. With Statement Context Managers

A context manager is an object that defines the runtime context to be established when executing a `with` statement. The context manager handles the entry into, and the exit from, the desired runtime context for the execution of the block of code. Context managers are normally invoked using the `with` statement (described in section The with statement), but can also be used by directly invoking their methods.

Typical uses of context managers include saving and restoring various kinds of global state, locking and unlocking resources, closing opened files, etc.

For more information on context managers, see Context Manager Types. The `object` class itself does not provide the context manager methods.

object.__enter__(self)

  Enter the runtime context related to this object. The `with` statement will bind this method’s return value to the target(s) specified in the `as` clause of the statement, if any.

object.__exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

  Exit the runtime context related to this object. The parameters describe the exception that caused the context to be exited. If the context was exited without an exception, all three arguments will be `None`.

  If an exception is supplied, and the method wishes to suppress the exception (i.e., prevent it from being propagated), it should return a true value. Otherwise, the exception will be processed normally upon exit from this method.

  Note that `__exit__()` methods should not reraise the passed-in exception; this is the caller’s responsibility.

См. также

PEP 343 - The «with» statement

  The specification, background, and examples for the Python `with` statement.

### 3.3.10. Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching

When using a class name in a pattern, positional arguments in the pattern are not allowed by default, i.e. `case MyClass(x, y)` is typically invalid without special support in `MyClass`. To be able to use that kind of pattern, the class needs to define a __match_args__ attribute.

object.__match_args__

  This class variable can be assigned a tuple of strings. When this class is used in a class pattern with positional arguments, each positional argument will be converted into a keyword argument, using the corresponding value in __match_args__ as the keyword. The absence of this attribute is equivalent to setting it to `()`.

For example, if `MyClass.__match_args__` is `("left", "center", "right")` that means that `case MyClass(x, y)` is equivalent to `case MyClass(left=x, center=y)`. Note that the number of arguments in the pattern must be smaller than or equal to the number of elements in __match_args__; if it is larger, the pattern match attempt will raise a `TypeError`.

Добавлено в версии 3.10.

См. также

PEP 634 - Structural Pattern Matching

  The specification for the Python `match` statement.

### 3.3.11. Emulating buffer types

The buffer protocol provides a way for Python objects to expose efficient access to a low-level memory array. This protocol is implemented by builtin types such as `bytes` and `memoryview`, and third-party libraries may define additional buffer types.

While buffer types are usually implemented in C, it is also possible to implement the protocol in Python.

object.__buffer__(self, flags)

  Called when a buffer is requested from self (for example, by the `memoryview` constructor). The flags argument is an integer representing the kind of buffer requested, affecting for example whether the returned buffer is read-only or writable. `inspect.BufferFlags` provides a convenient way to interpret the flags. The method must return a `memoryview` object.

  Thread safety: In free-threaded Python, implementations must manage any internal export counter using atomic operations. The method must be safe to call concurrently from multiple threads, and the returned buffer’s underlying data must remain valid until the corresponding `__release_buffer__()` call completes. See Thread safety for memoryview objects for details.

object.__release_buffer__(self, buffer)

  Called when a buffer is no longer needed. The buffer argument is a `memoryview` object that was previously returned by `__buffer__()`. The method must release any resources associated with the buffer. This method should return `None`.

  Thread safety: In free-threaded Python, any export counter decrement must use atomic operations. Resource cleanup must be thread-safe, as the final release may race with concurrent releases from other threads.

  Buffer objects that do not need to perform any cleanup are not required to implement this method.

Добавлено в версии 3.12.

См. также

PEP 688 - Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python

  Introduces the Python `__buffer__` and `__release_buffer__` methods.

`collections.abc.Buffer`

  ABC for buffer types.

### 3.3.12. Annotations

Functions, classes, and modules may contain annotations, which are a way to associate information (usually type hints) with a symbol.

object.__annotations__

  This attribute contains the annotations for an object. It is lazily evaluated, so accessing the attribute may execute arbitrary code and raise exceptions. If evaluation is successful, the attribute is set to a dictionary mapping from variable names to annotations.

  Изменено в версии 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated.

object.__annotate__(format)

  An annotate function. Returns a new dictionary object mapping attribute/parameter names to their annotation values.

  Takes a format parameter specifying the format in which annotations values should be provided. It must be a member of the `annotationlib.Format` enum, or an integer with a value corresponding to a member of the enum.

  If an annotate function doesn’t support the requested format, it must raise `NotImplementedError`. Annotate functions must always support `VALUE` format; they must not raise `NotImplementedError()` when called with this format.

  When called with `VALUE` format, an annotate function may raise `NameError`; it must not raise `NameError` when called requesting any other format.

  If an object does not have any annotations, `__annotate__` should preferably be set to `None` (it can’t be deleted), rather than set to a function that returns an empty dict.

  Добавлено в версии 3.14.

См. также

PEP 649 — Deferred evaluation of annotation using descriptors

  Introduces lazy evaluation of annotations and the `__annotate__` function.

### 3.3.13. Special method lookup

For custom classes, implicit invocations of special methods are only guaranteed to work correctly if defined on an object’s type, not in the object’s instance dictionary. That behaviour is the reason why the following code raises an exception:

    >>> class C:
    ...     pass
    ...
    >>> c = C()
    >>> c.__len__ = lambda: 5
    >>> len(c)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    TypeError: object of type 'C' has no len()

The rationale behind this behaviour lies with a number of special methods such as `__hash__()` and `__repr__()` that are implemented by all objects, including type objects. If the implicit lookup of these methods used the conventional lookup process, they would fail when invoked on the type object itself:

    >>> 1 .__hash__() == hash(1)
    True
    >>> int.__hash__() == hash(int)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    TypeError: descriptor '__hash__' of 'int' object needs an argument

Incorrectly attempting to invoke an unbound method of a class in this way is sometimes referred to as „metaclass confusion“, and is avoided by bypassing the instance when looking up special methods:

    >>> type(1).__hash__(1) == hash(1)
    True
    >>> type(int).__hash__(int) == hash(int)
    True

In addition to bypassing any instance attributes in the interest of correctness, implicit special method lookup generally also bypasses the `__getattribute__()` method even of the object’s metaclass:

    >>> class Meta(type):
    ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
    ...         print("Metaclass getattribute invoked")
    ...         return type.__getattribute__(*args)
    ...
    >>> class C(object, metaclass=Meta):
    ...     def __len__(self):
    ...         return 10
    ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
    ...         print("Class getattribute invoked")
    ...         return object.__getattribute__(*args)
    ...
    >>> c = C()
    >>> c.__len__()                 # Explicit lookup via instance
    Class getattribute invoked
    10
    >>> type(c).__len__(c)          # Explicit lookup via type
    Metaclass getattribute invoked
    10
    >>> len(c)                      # Implicit lookup
    10

Bypassing the `__getattribute__()` machinery in this fashion provides significant scope for speed optimisations within the interpreter, at the cost of some flexibility in the handling of special methods (the special method must be set on the class object itself in order to be consistently invoked by the interpreter).

## 3.4. Coroutines

### 3.4.1. Awaitable Objects

An awaitable object generally implements an `__await__()` method. Coroutine objects returned from `async def` functions are awaitable.

Примечание

The generator iterator objects returned from generators decorated with `types.coroutine()` are also awaitable, but they do not implement `__await__()`.

object.__await__(self)

  Must return an iterator. Should be used to implement awaitable objects. For instance, `asyncio.Future` implements this method to be compatible with the `await` expression. The `object` class itself is not awaitable and does not provide this method.

  Примечание

  The language doesn’t place any restriction on the type or value of the objects yielded by the iterator returned by `__await__`, as this is specific to the implementation of the asynchronous execution framework (e.g. `asyncio`) that will be managing the awaitable object.

Добавлено в версии 3.5.

См. также

PEP 492 for additional information about awaitable objects.

### 3.4.2. Coroutine Objects

Coroutine objects are awaitable objects. A coroutine’s execution can be controlled by calling `__await__()` and iterating over the result. When the coroutine has finished executing and returns, the iterator raises `StopIteration`, and the exception’s `value` attribute holds the return value. If the coroutine raises an exception, it is propagated by the iterator. Coroutines should not directly raise unhandled `StopIteration` exceptions.

Coroutines also have the methods listed below, which are analogous to those of generators (see Generator-iterator methods). However, unlike generators, coroutines do not directly support iteration.

Coroutines are generic over the types of their yield, send, and return values, respectively.

Изменено в версии 3.5.2: It is a `RuntimeError` to await on a coroutine more than once.

coroutine.send(value)

  Starts or resumes execution of the coroutine. If value is `None`, this is equivalent to advancing the iterator returned by `__await__()`. If value is not `None`, this method delegates to the `send()` method of the iterator that caused the coroutine to suspend. The result (return value, `StopIteration`, or other exception) is the same as when iterating over the `__await__()` return value, described above.

coroutine.throw(value)
coroutine.throw(type[, value[, traceback]])

  Raises the specified exception in the coroutine. This method delegates to the `throw()` method of the iterator that caused the coroutine to suspend, if it has such a method. Otherwise, the exception is raised at the suspension point. The result (return value, `StopIteration`, or other exception) is the same as when iterating over the `__await__()` return value, described above. If the exception is not caught in the coroutine, it propagates back to the caller.

  Изменено в версии 3.12: The second signature (type[, value[, traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python.

coroutine.close()

  Causes the coroutine to clean itself up and exit. If the coroutine is suspended, this method first delegates to the `close()` method of the iterator that caused the coroutine to suspend, if it has such a method. Then it raises `GeneratorExit` at the suspension point, causing the coroutine to immediately clean itself up. Finally, the coroutine is marked as having finished executing, even if it was never started.

  Coroutine objects are automatically closed using the above process when they are about to be destroyed.

### 3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators

An asynchronous iterator can call asynchronous code in its `__anext__` method.

Asynchronous iterators can be used in an `async for` statement.

The `object` class itself does not provide these methods.

object.__aiter__(self)

  Must return an asynchronous iterator object.

object.__anext__(self)

  Must return an awaitable resulting in a next value of the iterator. Should raise a `StopAsyncIteration` error when the iteration is over.

An example of an asynchronous iterable object:

    class Reader:
        async def readline(self):
            ...

        def __aiter__(self):
            return self

        async def __anext__(self):
            val = await self.readline()
            if val == b'':
                raise StopAsyncIteration
            return val

Добавлено в версии 3.5.

Изменено в версии 3.7: Prior to Python 3.7, `__aiter__()` could return an awaitable that would resolve to an asynchronous iterator.

Starting with Python 3.7, `__aiter__()` must return an asynchronous iterator object. Returning anything else will result in a `TypeError` error.

### 3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers

An asynchronous context manager is a context manager that is able to suspend execution in its `__aenter__` and `__aexit__` methods.

Asynchronous context managers can be used in an `async with` statement.

The `object` class itself does not provide these methods.

object.__aenter__(self)

  Semantically similar to `__enter__()`, the only difference being that it must return an awaitable.

object.__aexit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

  Semantically similar to `__exit__()`, the only difference being that it must return an awaitable.

An example of an asynchronous context manager class:

    class AsyncContextManager:
        async def __aenter__(self):
            await log('entering context')

        async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
            await log('exiting context')

Добавлено в версии 3.5.

Примечания

[1]

It is possible in some cases to change an object’s type, under certain controlled conditions. It generally isn’t a good idea though, since it can lead to some very strange behaviour if it is handled incorrectly.

[2]

The `__hash__()`, `__iter__()`, `__reversed__()`, `__contains__()`, `__class_getitem__()` and `__fspath__()` methods have special handling for this. Others will still raise a `TypeError`, but may do so by relying on the behavior that `None` is not callable.

[3]

«Does not support» here means that the class has no such method, or the method returns `NotImplemented`. Do not set the method to `None` if you want to force fallback to the right operand’s reflected method—that will instead have the opposite effect of explicitly blocking such fallback.

[4]

For operands of the same type, it is assumed that if the non-reflected method (such as `__add__()`) fails then the operation is not supported, which is why the reflected method is not called.

[5]

If the right operand’s type is a subclass of the left operand’s type, the reflected method having precedence allows subclasses to override their ancestors“ operations.