"itertools" --- Funções que criam iteradores para laços eficientes
******************************************************************

======================================================================

Esse módulo implementa diversos blocos de instruções com *iteradores*,
inspirados por construções de  APL, Haskell, e SML.  Cada uma foi
adequadamente reformulada para Python.

Esse módulo padroniza um conjunto central de ferramentas rápidas e de
uso eficiente da memória, que podem ser utilizadas sozinhas ou
combinadas. Juntas, eles formam uma "álgebra de iteradores" tornando
possível construir ferramentas sucintas e eficientes em Python puro.

Por exemplo, SML fornece uma ferramenta para tabulação: "tabulate(f)"
que produz uma sequência "f(0), f(1), ...".  O mesmo efeito pode ser
obtido em Python combinando "map()" e "count()" para formar "map(f,
count())".

These tools and their built-in counterparts also work well with the
high-speed functions in the "operator" module.  For example, the
multiplication operator can be mapped across two vectors to form an
efficient dot-product: "sum(starmap(operator.mul, zip(vec1, vec2,
strict=True)))".

**Iteradores infinitos:**

+--------------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Iterador           | Argumentos        | Resultado                                         | Exemplo                                   |
|====================|===================|===================================================|===========================================|
| "count()"          | [start[, step]]   | start, start+step, start+2*step, ...              | "count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ..."          |
+--------------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| "cycle()"          | p                 | p0, p1, ... ultimo elemento de p, p0, p1, ...     | "cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D ..."     |
+--------------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------+
| "repeat()"         | elem [,n]         | elem, elem, elem, ... repete infinitamente ou até | "repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10"                |
|                    |                   | n vezes                                           |                                           |
+--------------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------+

**Iteradores terminando na sequencia de entrada mais curta:**

+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Iterador                     | Argumentos                   | Resultado                                         | Exemplo                                                       |
|==============================|==============================|===================================================|===============================================================|
| "accumulate()"               | p [,func]                    | p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, ...                          | "accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15"                       |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "batched()"                  | p, n                         | (p0, p1, ..., p_n-1), ...                         | "batched('ABCDEFG', n=3) → ABC DEF G"                         |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "chain()"                    | p, q, ...                    | p0, p1, ... último elemento de p, q0, q1, ...     | "chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F"                           |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "chain.from_iterable()"      | iterable                     | p0, p1, ... último elemento de p, q0, q1, ...     | "chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F"           |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "compress()"                 | data, selectors              | (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), ...               | "compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F"                 |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "dropwhile()"                | predicate, seq               | seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when predicate fails   | "dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) → 6 4 1"               |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "filterfalse()"              | predicate, seq               | elements of seq where predicate(elem) fails       | "filterfalse(lambda x: x%2, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8"           |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "groupby()"                  | iterable[, key]              | sub-iteradores agrupados pelo valor de key(v)     |                                                               |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "islice()"                   | seq, [start,] stop [, step]  | elementos de seq[start:stop:step]                 | "islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G"                      |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "pairwise()"                 | iterable                     | (p[0], p[1]), (p[1], p[2])                        | "pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG"                     |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "starmap()"                  | func, seq                    | func(*seq[0]), func(*seq[1]), ...                 | "starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000"            |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "takewhile()"                | predicate, seq               | seq[0], seq[1], until predicate fails             | "takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) → 1 4"                 |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "tee()"                      | it, n                        | n iteradores it independentes                     |                                                               |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "zip_longest()"              | p, q, ...                    | (p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), ...                   | "zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-"      |
+------------------------------+------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+

**Iteradores combinatórios:**

+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Iterador                                       | Argumentos           | Resultado                                                     |
|================================================|======================|===============================================================|
| "product()"                                    | p, q, ... [repeat=1] | produto cartesiano, equivalente a laços "for" aninhados       |
+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "permutations()"                               | p[, r]               | tuplas de tamanho r, com todas ordenações possíveis, sem      |
|                                                |                      | elementos repetidos                                           |
+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "combinations()"                               | p, r                 | tuplas de tamanho r, ordenadas, sem elementos repetidos       |
+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "combinations_with_replacement()"              | p, r                 | tuplas de tamanho r, ordenadas, com elementos repetidos       |
+------------------------------------------------+----------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+

+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Exemplos                                       | Resultado                                                     |
|================================================|===============================================================|
| "product('ABCD', repeat=2)"                    | "AA AB AC AD BA BB BC BD CA CB CC CD DA DB DC DD"             |
+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "permutations('ABCD', 2)"                      | "AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC"                         |
+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "combinations('ABCD', 2)"                      | "AB AC AD BC BD CD"                                           |
+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| "combinations_with_replacement('ABCD', 2)"     | "AA AB AC AD BB BC BD CC CD DD"                               |
+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+


Itertool Functions
==================

Todas as funções a seguir constroem e retorna iteradores. Algumas
fornecem fluxos de tamanhos infinitos, assim elas devem ser acessados
somente por funções ou laços que interrompem o fluxo.

itertools.accumulate(iterable[, func, *, initial=None])

   Constrói um iterador que devolve somas acumuladas, ou resultados
   acumulados de outras funções (especificada pelo argumento opcional
   *func*).

   Se *func* é fornecido, deve ser uma função de dois argumentos.
   Elementos da entrada *iterable* pode ser qualquer tipo que pode ser
   aceito como argumento para *func*. (Por exemplo, com o operador
   padrão de adição, esses elementos pode ser qualquer tipo que possa
   ser somado, incluindo "Decimal" ou "Fraction".)

   Usualmente, o número de elementos da saída coincide com o número de
   elementos do iterável da entrada. Contudo, se o argumento nomeado
   *initial* é fornecido, a acumulação começa com este valor inicial,
   assim a saída terá um elemento a mais que o iterável da entrada.

   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def accumulate(iterable, func=operator.add, *, initial=None):
          'Return running totals'
          # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15
          # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], initial=100) → 100 101 103 106 110 115
          # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) → 1 2 6 24 120
          it = iter(iterable)
          total = initial
          if initial is None:
              try:
                  total = next(it)
              except StopIteration:
                  return
          yield total
          for element in it:
              total = func(total, element)
              yield total

   Há uma serie de usos para o argumento *func*. Ele pode ser definido
   como "min()" para um mínimo de execução, "max()" para um máximo de
   execução, ou "operator.mul()" para um produto de execução. Tabelas
   de amortização podem ser construídas pela acumulação de juros e
   aplicação de pagamentos:

      >>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
      >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul))     # running product
      [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]
      >>> list(accumulate(data, max))              # running maximum
      [3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]

      # Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 10 annual payments of 90
      >>> account_update = lambda bal, pmt: round(bal * 1.05) + pmt
      >>> list(accumulate(repeat(-90, 10), account_update, initial=1_000))
      [1000, 960, 918, 874, 828, 779, 728, 674, 618, 559, 497]

   Veja "functools.reduce()" para uma função similar que devolve
   apenas o valor acumulado final.

   Adicionado na versão 3.2.

   Alterado na versão 3.3: Adicionado o parâmetro opcional *func*.

   Alterado na versão 3.8: Adicionado o parâmetro opcional *initial*.

itertools.batched(iterable, n)

   Batch data from the *iterable* into tuples of length *n*. The last
   batch may be shorter than *n*.

   Loops over the input iterable and accumulates data into tuples up
   to size *n*.  The input is consumed lazily, just enough to fill a
   batch. The result is yielded as soon as the batch is full or when
   the input iterable is exhausted:

      >>> flattened_data = ['roses', 'red', 'violets', 'blue', 'sugar', 'sweet']
      >>> unflattened = list(batched(flattened_data, 2))
      >>> unflattened
      [('roses', 'red'), ('violets', 'blue'), ('sugar', 'sweet')]

      >>> for batch in batched('ABCDEFG', 3):
      ...     print(batch)
      ...
      ('A', 'B', 'C')
      ('D', 'E', 'F')
      ('G',)

   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def batched(iterable, n):
          # batched('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC DEF G
          if n < 1:
              raise ValueError('n must be at least one')
          it = iter(iterable)
          while batch := tuple(islice(it, n)):
              yield batch

   Adicionado na versão 3.12.

itertools.chain(*iterables)

   Cria um iterador que devolve elementos do primeiro iterável até o
   esgotamento, então continua com o próximo iterável, até que todos
   os iteráveis sejam esgotados. Usando para tratar sequências
   consecutivas como uma única sequencia. aproximadamente equivalente
   a:

      def chain(*iterables):
          # chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F
          for it in iterables:
              for element in it:
                  yield element

classmethod chain.from_iterable(iterable)

   Construtor alternativo para "chain()".  Obtém entradas encadeadas a
   partir de um único argumento iterável que avaliado preguiçosamente.
   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def from_iterable(iterables):
          # chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F
          for it in iterables:
              for element in it:
                  yield element

itertools.combinations(iterable, r)

   Devolve subsequências de elementos com comprimento *r* a partir da
   entrada *iterável*

   As tuplas das combinações são emitidas em ordem lexicográfica de
   acordo com a ordem do iterável de entrada. Portanto, se o iterável
   estiver ordenado, as tuplas de combinação serão produzidas em
   sequência ordenada.

   Os elementos são tratados como únicos baseado em suas posições, não
   em seus valores. Portanto se os elementos de entrada são únicos,
   não haverá repetição de valores nas sucessivas combinações.

   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def combinations(iterable, r):
          # combinations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BC BD CD
          # combinations(range(4), 3) → 012 013 023 123
          pool = tuple(iterable)
          n = len(pool)
          if r > n:
              return
          indices = list(range(r))
          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
          while True:
              for i in reversed(range(r)):
                  if indices[i] != i + n - r:
                      break
              else:
                  return
              indices[i] += 1
              for j in range(i+1, r):
                  indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

   O código  para "combinations()" também pode ser expresso como uma
   subsequência de "permutations()" depois de filtradas as entradas
   onde os elementos não estão ordenandos (de acordo com a sua posição
   na entrada):

      def combinations(iterable, r):
          pool = tuple(iterable)
          n = len(pool)
          for indices in permutations(range(n), r):
              if sorted(indices) == list(indices):
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

   O número de itens devolvidos é "n! / r! / (n-r)!" quando "0 <= r <=
   n" ou zero quando "r > n".

itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)

   Devolve subsequências de comprimento *r* de elementos do *iterável*
   de entrada permitindo que elementos individuais sejam repetidos
   mais de uma vez.

   As tuplas das combinações são emitidas em ordem lexicográfica de
   acordo com a ordem do iterável de entrada. Portanto, se o iterável
   estiver ordenado, as tuplas de combinação serão produzidas em
   sequência ordenada.

   Os elementos são tratados como únicos baseado em suas posições, não
   em seus valores. Portanto se os elementos de entrada forem únicos,
   não haverá repetição de valores nas combinações geradas.

   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
          # combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) → AA AB AC BB BC CC
          pool = tuple(iterable)
          n = len(pool)
          if not n and r:
              return
          indices = [0] * r
          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
          while True:
              for i in reversed(range(r)):
                  if indices[i] != n - 1:
                      break
              else:
                  return
              indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

   O código  para "combinations_with_replacement()" também pode ser
   expresso como uma subsequência de "product()" depois de filtradas
   as entradas onde os elementos não estão ordenados (de acordo com a
   sua posição na entrada):

      def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
          pool = tuple(iterable)
          n = len(pool)
          for indices in product(range(n), repeat=r):
              if sorted(indices) == list(indices):
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

   O número de itens devolvidos é "(n+r-1)! / r! / (n-1)!" quando "n >
   0".

   Adicionado na versão 3.1.

itertools.compress(data, selectors)

   Crie um iterador que filtra elementos de *data* devolvendo apenas
   aqueles que tem um elemento correspondente em *selectors* que seja
   avaliado "True". Interrompe quando os iteráveis *data* ou
   *selectors* tiveram sido esgotados. Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def compress(data, selectors):
          # compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F
          return (d for d, s in zip(data, selectors) if s)

   Adicionado na versão 3.1.

itertools.count(start=0, step=1)

   Crie um iterador que devolve valores igualmente espaçados começando
   pelo número *start*. Frequentemente usado com um argumento da
   função "map()" para gerar pontos de dados consecutivos. Também
   usado com "zip()" para adicionar números sequenciais.
   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def count(start=0, step=1):
          # count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...
          # count(2.5, 0.5) → 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...
          n = start
          while True:
              yield n
              n += step

   Quando é feita uma contagem usando números de ponto flutuante, é
   possível ter melhor precisão substituindo código multiplicativo
   como  "(start + step * i for i in count())".

   Alterado na versão 3.1: Adicionou argumento *step* e permitiu
   argumentos não-inteiros.

itertools.cycle(iterable)

   Crie um iterador que devolve elementos do iterável assim como salva
   uma cópia de cada um. Quando o iterável é esgotado, devolve
   elementos da cópia salva. Repete indefinidamente. Aproximadamente
   equivalente a:

      def cycle(iterable):
          # cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D A B C D ...
          saved = []
          for element in iterable:
              yield element
              saved.append(element)
          while saved:
              for element in saved:
                    yield element

   Note, this member of the toolkit may require significant auxiliary
   storage (depending on the length of the iterable).

itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iterable)

   Make an iterator that drops elements from the iterable as long as
   the predicate is true; afterwards, returns every element.  Note,
   the iterator does not produce *any* output until the predicate
   first becomes false, so it may have a lengthy start-up time.
   Roughly equivalent to:

      def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
          # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) → 6 4 1
          iterable = iter(iterable)
          for x in iterable:
              if not predicate(x):
                  yield x
                  break
          for x in iterable:
              yield x

itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iterable)

   Make an iterator that filters elements from iterable returning only
   those for which the predicate is false. If *predicate* is "None",
   return the items that are false. Roughly equivalent to:

      def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
          # filterfalse(lambda x: x%2, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8
          if predicate is None:
              predicate = bool
          for x in iterable:
              if not predicate(x):
                  yield x

itertools.groupby(iterable, key=None)

   Make an iterator that returns consecutive keys and groups from the
   *iterable*. The *key* is a function computing a key value for each
   element.  If not specified or is "None", *key* defaults to an
   identity function and returns the element unchanged.  Generally,
   the iterable needs to already be sorted on the same key function.

   The operation of "groupby()" is similar to the "uniq" filter in
   Unix.  It generates a break or new group every time the value of
   the key function changes (which is why it is usually necessary to
   have sorted the data using the same key function).  That behavior
   differs from SQL's GROUP BY which aggregates common elements
   regardless of their input order.

   The returned group is itself an iterator that shares the underlying
   iterable with "groupby()".  Because the source is shared, when the
   "groupby()" object is advanced, the previous group is no longer
   visible.  So, if that data is needed later, it should be stored as
   a list:

      groups = []
      uniquekeys = []
      data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc)
      for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc):
          groups.append(list(g))      # Store group iterator as a list
          uniquekeys.append(k)

   "groupby()" é aproximadamente equivalente a:

      class groupby:
          # [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] → A B C D A B
          # [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] → AAAA BBB CC D

          def __init__(self, iterable, key=None):
              if key is None:
                  key = lambda x: x
              self.keyfunc = key
              self.it = iter(iterable)
              self.tgtkey = self.currkey = self.currvalue = object()

          def __iter__(self):
              return self

          def __next__(self):
              self.id = object()
              while self.currkey == self.tgtkey:
                  self.currvalue = next(self.it)    # Exit on StopIteration
                  self.currkey = self.keyfunc(self.currvalue)
              self.tgtkey = self.currkey
              return (self.currkey, self._grouper(self.tgtkey, self.id))

          def _grouper(self, tgtkey, id):
              while self.id is id and self.currkey == tgtkey:
                  yield self.currvalue
                  try:
                      self.currvalue = next(self.it)
                  except StopIteration:
                      return
                  self.currkey = self.keyfunc(self.currvalue)

itertools.islice(iterable, stop)
itertools.islice(iterable, start, stop[, step])

   Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable.
   If *start* is non-zero, then elements from the iterable are skipped
   until start is reached. Afterward, elements are returned
   consecutively unless *step* is set higher than one which results in
   items being skipped.  If *stop* is "None", then iteration continues
   until the iterator is exhausted, if at all; otherwise, it stops at
   the specified position.

   If *start* is "None", then iteration starts at zero. If *step* is
   "None", then the step defaults to one.

   Unlike regular slicing, "islice()" does not support negative values
   for *start*, *stop*, or *step*.  Can be used to extract related
   fields from data where the internal structure has been flattened
   (for example, a multi-line report may list a name field on every
   third line).

   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def islice(iterable, *args):
          # islice('ABCDEFG', 2) → A B
          # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) → C D
          # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G
          # islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) → A C E G
          s = slice(*args)
          start, stop, step = s.start or 0, s.stop or sys.maxsize, s.step or 1
          it = iter(range(start, stop, step))
          try:
              nexti = next(it)
          except StopIteration:
              # Consume *iterable* up to the *start* position.
              for i, element in zip(range(start), iterable):
                  pass
              return
          try:
              for i, element in enumerate(iterable):
                  if i == nexti:
                      yield element
                      nexti = next(it)
          except StopIteration:
              # Consume to *stop*.
              for i, element in zip(range(i + 1, stop), iterable):
                  pass

itertools.pairwise(iterable)

   Return successive overlapping pairs taken from the input
   *iterable*.

   The number of 2-tuples in the output iterator will be one fewer
   than the number of inputs.  It will be empty if the input iterable
   has fewer than two values.

   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def pairwise(iterable):
          # pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG
          iterator = iter(iterable)
          a = next(iterator, None)
          for b in iterator:
              yield a, b
              a = b

   Adicionado na versão 3.10.

itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None)

   Return successive *r* length permutations of elements in the
   *iterable*.

   If *r* is not specified or is "None", then *r* defaults to the
   length of the *iterable* and all possible full-length permutations
   are generated.

   The permutation tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
   to the order of the input *iterable*. So, if the input *iterable*
   is sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

   Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
   their value.  So if the input elements are unique, there will be no
   repeated values within a permutation.

   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def permutations(iterable, r=None):
          # permutations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
          # permutations(range(3)) → 012 021 102 120 201 210
          pool = tuple(iterable)
          n = len(pool)
          r = n if r is None else r
          if r > n:
              return
          indices = list(range(n))
          cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
          while n:
              for i in reversed(range(r)):
                  cycles[i] -= 1
                  if cycles[i] == 0:
                      indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1]
                      cycles[i] = n - i
                  else:
                      j = cycles[i]
                      indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i]
                      yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
                      break
              else:
                  return

   O código  para "permutations()" também pode ser expresso como uma
   subsequência de "product()" depois de filtradas as entradas com
   elementos repetidos (os de mesma posição no conjunto de entrada):

      def permutations(iterable, r=None):
          pool = tuple(iterable)
          n = len(pool)
          r = n if r is None else r
          for indices in product(range(n), repeat=r):
              if len(set(indices)) == r:
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

   O número de itens retornado é "n! / (n-r)!" quando "0 <= r <= n" ou
   zero quando "r > n".

itertools.product(*iterables, repeat=1)

   Produto cartesiano de iteráveis de entrada

   Aproximadamente equivalente a laços for aninhados em uma expressão
   geradora. Por exemplo, "product(A, B)" devolve o mesmo que "((x,y)
   for x in A for y in B)".

   Os laços aninhados circulam como um hodômetro com o elemento mais à
   direita avançando a cada iteração. Este padrão cria uma ordenação
   lexicográfica de maneira que se os iteráveis de entrada estiverem
   ordenados, as tuplas produzidas são emitidas de maneira ordenada.

   To compute the product of an iterable with itself, specify the
   number of repetitions with the optional *repeat* keyword argument.
   For example, "product(A, repeat=4)" means the same as "product(A,
   A, A, A)".

   This function is roughly equivalent to the following code, except
   that the actual implementation does not build up intermediate
   results in memory:

      def product(*args, repeat=1):
          # product('ABCD', 'xy') → Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
          # product(range(2), repeat=3) → 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
          pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in args] * repeat
          result = [[]]
          for pool in pools:
              result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]
          for prod in result:
              yield tuple(prod)

   Before "product()" runs, it completely consumes the input
   iterables, keeping pools of values in memory to generate the
   products.  Accordingly, it is only useful with finite inputs.

itertools.repeat(object[, times])

   Make an iterator that returns *object* over and over again. Runs
   indefinitely unless the *times* argument is specified.

   Aproximadamente equivalente a:

      def repeat(object, times=None):
          # repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10
          if times is None:
              while True:
                  yield object
          else:
              for i in range(times):
                  yield object

   Um uso comum de *repeat* é para fornecer um fluxo de valores
   constantes para *map* ou *zip*.

      >>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
      [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

itertools.starmap(function, iterable)

   Make an iterator that computes the function using arguments
   obtained from the iterable.  Used instead of "map()" when argument
   parameters are already grouped in tuples from a single iterable
   (when the data has been "pre-zipped").

   The difference between "map()" and "starmap()" parallels the
   distinction between "function(a,b)" and "function(*c)". Roughly
   equivalent to:

      def starmap(function, iterable):
          # starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000
          for args in iterable:
              yield function(*args)

itertools.takewhile(predicate, iterable)

   Make an iterator that returns elements from the iterable as long as
   the predicate is true.  Roughly equivalent to:

      def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
          # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,4,1]) → 1 4
          for x in iterable:
              if predicate(x):
                  yield x
              else:
                  break

   Note, the element that first fails the predicate condition is
   consumed from the input iterator and there is no way to access it.
   This could be an issue if an application wants to further consume
   the input iterator after takewhile has been run to exhaustion.  To
   work around this problem, consider using more-iterools
   before_and_after() instead.

itertools.tee(iterable, n=2)

   Return *n* independent iterators from a single iterable.

   The following Python code helps explain what *tee* does (although
   the actual implementation is more complex and uses only a single
   underlying FIFO (first-in, first-out) queue):

      def tee(iterable, n=2):
          it = iter(iterable)
          deques = [collections.deque() for i in range(n)]
          def gen(mydeque):
              while True:
                  if not mydeque:             # when the local deque is empty
                      try:
                          newval = next(it)   # fetch a new value and
                      except StopIteration:
                          return
                      for d in deques:        # load it to all the deques
                          d.append(newval)
                  yield mydeque.popleft()
          return tuple(gen(d) for d in deques)

   Once a "tee()" has been created, the original *iterable* should not
   be used anywhere else; otherwise, the *iterable* could get advanced
   without the tee objects being informed.

   "tee" iterators are not threadsafe. A "RuntimeError" may be raised
   when simultaneously using iterators returned by the same "tee()"
   call, even if the original *iterable* is threadsafe.

   This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending
   on how much temporary data needs to be stored). In general, if one
   iterator uses most or all of the data before another iterator
   starts, it is faster to use "list()" instead of "tee()".

itertools.zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None)

   Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the
   iterables. If the iterables are of uneven length, missing values
   are filled-in with *fillvalue*. Iteration continues until the
   longest iterable is exhausted.  Roughly equivalent to:

      def zip_longest(*args, fillvalue=None):
          # zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-
          iterators = [iter(it) for it in args]
          num_active = len(iterators)
          if not num_active:
              return
          while True:
              values = []
              for i, it in enumerate(iterators):
                  try:
                      value = next(it)
                  except StopIteration:
                      num_active -= 1
                      if not num_active:
                          return
                      iterators[i] = repeat(fillvalue)
                      value = fillvalue
                  values.append(value)
              yield tuple(values)

   Se um dos iteráveis é potencialmente infinito, então a função
   "zip_longest()" deve ser embrulhada por algo que limite o número de
   chamadas (por exemplo "islice()" ou "takewhile()"). Se não
   especificado, *fillvalue*  tem o valor padrão "None".


Receitas com itertools
======================

Esta seção mostra receitas para criação de um ferramental ampliado
usando as ferramentas existentes de itertools como elementos
construtivos.

The primary purpose of the itertools recipes is educational.  The
recipes show various ways of thinking about individual tools — for
example, that "chain.from_iterable" is related to the concept of
flattening.  The recipes also give ideas about ways that the tools can
be combined — for example, how "starmap()" and "repeat()" can work
together.  The recipes also show patterns for using itertools with the
"operator" and "collections" modules as well as with the built-in
itertools such as "map()", "filter()", "reversed()", and
"enumerate()".

A secondary purpose of the recipes is to serve as an incubator.  The
"accumulate()", "compress()", and "pairwise()" itertools started out
as recipes.  Currently, the "sliding_window()", "iter_index()", and
"sieve()" recipes are being tested to see whether they prove their
worth.

Substantially all of these recipes and many, many others can be
installed from the more-itertools project found on the Python Package
Index:

   python -m pip install more-itertools

Many of the recipes offer the same high performance as the underlying
toolset. Superior memory performance is kept by processing elements
one at a time rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all
at once. Code volume is kept small by linking the tools together in a
functional style.  High speed is retained by preferring "vectorized"
building blocks over the use of for-loops and *generators* which incur
interpreter overhead.

   import collections
   import functools
   import math
   import operator
   import random

   def take(n, iterable):
       "Return first n items of the iterable as a list."
       return list(islice(iterable, n))

   def prepend(value, iterable):
       "Prepend a single value in front of an iterable."
       # prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) → 1 2 3 4
       return chain([value], iterable)

   def tabulate(function, start=0):
       "Return function(0), function(1), ..."
       return map(function, count(start))

   def repeatfunc(func, times=None, *args):
       """Repeat calls to func with specified arguments.

       Example:  repeatfunc(random.random)
       """
       if times is None:
           return starmap(func, repeat(args))
       return starmap(func, repeat(args, times))

   def flatten(list_of_lists):
       "Flatten one level of nesting."
       return chain.from_iterable(list_of_lists)

   def ncycles(iterable, n):
       "Returns the sequence elements n times."
       return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))

   def tail(n, iterable):
       "Return an iterator over the last n items."
       # tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') → E F G
       return iter(collections.deque(iterable, maxlen=n))

   def consume(iterator, n=None):
       "Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
       # Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
       if n is None:
           # feed the entire iterator into a zero-length deque
           collections.deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
       else:
           # advance to the empty slice starting at position n
           next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)

   def nth(iterable, n, default=None):
       "Returns the nth item or a default value."
       return next(islice(iterable, n, None), default)

   def quantify(iterable, predicate=bool):
       "Given a predicate that returns True or False, count the True results."
       return sum(map(predicate, iterable))

   def first_true(iterable, default=False, predicate=None):
       "Returns the first true value or the *default* if there is no true value."
       # first_true([a,b,c], x) → a or b or c or x
       # first_true([a,b], x, f) → a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x
       return next(filter(predicate, iterable), default)

   def all_equal(iterable, key=None):
       "Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other."
       # all_equal('4٤໔４৪', key=int) → True
       return len(take(2, groupby(iterable, key))) <= 1

   def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
       "List unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
       # unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D A B
       # unique_justseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c A D
       if key is None:
           return map(operator.itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
       return map(next, map(operator.itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))

   def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
       "List unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
       # unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D
       # unique_everseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c D
       seen = set()
       if key is None:
           for element in filterfalse(seen.__contains__, iterable):
               seen.add(element)
               yield element
       else:
           for element in iterable:
               k = key(element)
               if k not in seen:
                   seen.add(k)
                   yield element

   def sliding_window(iterable, n):
       "Collect data into overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
       # sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 4) → ABCD BCDE CDEF DEFG
       it = iter(iterable)
       window = collections.deque(islice(it, n-1), maxlen=n)
       for x in it:
           window.append(x)
           yield tuple(window)

   def grouper(iterable, n, *, incomplete='fill', fillvalue=None):
       "Collect data into non-overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
       # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, fillvalue='x') → ABC DEF Gxx
       # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='strict') → ABC DEF ValueError
       # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='ignore') → ABC DEF
       iterators = [iter(iterable)] * n
       match incomplete:
           case 'fill':
               return zip_longest(*iterators, fillvalue=fillvalue)
           case 'strict':
               return zip(*iterators, strict=True)
           case 'ignore':
               return zip(*iterators)
           case _:
               raise ValueError('Expected fill, strict, or ignore')

   def roundrobin(*iterables):
       "Visit input iterables in a cycle until each is exhausted."
       # roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') → A D E B F C
       # Algorithm credited to George Sakkis
       iterators = map(iter, iterables)
       for num_active in range(len(iterables), 0, -1):
           iterators = cycle(islice(iterators, num_active))
           yield from map(next, iterators)

   def partition(predicate, iterable):
       """Partition entries into false entries and true entries.

       If *predicate* is slow, consider wrapping it with functools.lru_cache().
       """
       # partition(is_odd, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8   and  1 3 5 7 9
       t1, t2 = tee(iterable)
       return filterfalse(predicate, t1), filter(predicate, t2)

   def subslices(seq):
       "Return all contiguous non-empty subslices of a sequence."
       # subslices('ABCD') → A AB ABC ABCD B BC BCD C CD D
       slices = starmap(slice, combinations(range(len(seq) + 1), 2))
       return map(operator.getitem, repeat(seq), slices)

   def iter_index(iterable, value, start=0, stop=None):
       "Return indices where a value occurs in a sequence or iterable."
       # iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A') → 0 1 4 7
       seq_index = getattr(iterable, 'index', None)
       if seq_index is None:
           # Path for general iterables
           it = islice(iterable, start, stop)
           for i, element in enumerate(it, start):
               if element is value or element == value:
                   yield i
       else:
           # Path for sequences with an index() method
           stop = len(iterable) if stop is None else stop
           i = start
           try:
               while True:
                   yield (i := seq_index(value, i, stop))
                   i += 1
           except ValueError:
               pass

   def iter_except(func, exception, first=None):
       """ Call a function repeatedly until an exception is raised.

       Converts a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface.
       """
       # iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError) → non-blocking dictionary iterator
       try:
           if first is not None:
               yield first()
           while True:
               yield func()
       except exception:
           pass

The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:

   def powerset(iterable):
       "powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)"
       s = list(iterable)
       return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))

   def sum_of_squares(iterable):
       "Add up the squares of the input values."
       # sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30]) → 1400
       return math.sumprod(*tee(iterable))

   def reshape(matrix, cols):
       "Reshape a 2-D matrix to have a given number of columns."
       # reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3) →  (0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5)
       return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), cols)

   def transpose(matrix):
       "Swap the rows and columns of a 2-D matrix."
       # transpose([(1, 2, 3), (11, 22, 33)]) → (1, 11) (2, 22) (3, 33)
       return zip(*matrix, strict=True)

   def matmul(m1, m2):
       "Multiply two matrices."
       # matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [(2, 5), (7, 9)]) → (49, 80), (41, 60)
       n = len(m2[0])
       return batched(starmap(math.sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)

   def convolve(signal, kernel):
       """Discrete linear convolution of two iterables.
       Equivalent to polynomial multiplication.

       Convolutions are mathematically commutative; however, the inputs are
       evaluated differently.  The signal is consumed lazily and can be
       infinite. The kernel is fully consumed before the calculations begin.

       Article:  https://betterexplained.com/articles/intuitive-convolution/
       Video:    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuXjwB4LzSA
       """
       # convolve([1, -1, -20], [1, -3]) → 1 -4 -17 60
       # convolve(data, [0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]) → Moving average (blur)
       # convolve(data, [1/2, 0, -1/2]) → 1st derivative estimate
       # convolve(data, [1, -2, 1]) → 2nd derivative estimate
       kernel = tuple(kernel)[::-1]
       n = len(kernel)
       padded_signal = chain(repeat(0, n-1), signal, repeat(0, n-1))
       windowed_signal = sliding_window(padded_signal, n)
       return map(math.sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)

   def polynomial_from_roots(roots):
       """Compute a polynomial's coefficients from its roots.

          (x - 5) (x + 4) (x - 3)  expands to:   x³ -4x² -17x + 60
       """
       # polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3]) → [1, -4, -17, 60]
       factors = zip(repeat(1), map(operator.neg, roots))
       return list(functools.reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))

   def polynomial_eval(coefficients, x):
       """Evaluate a polynomial at a specific value.

       Computes with better numeric stability than Horner's method.
       """
       # Evaluate x³ -4x² -17x + 60 at x = 5
       # polynomial_eval([1, -4, -17, 60], x=5) → 0
       n = len(coefficients)
       if not n:
           return type(x)(0)
       powers = map(pow, repeat(x), reversed(range(n)))
       return math.sumprod(coefficients, powers)

   def polynomial_derivative(coefficients):
       """Compute the first derivative of a polynomial.

          f(x)  =  x³ -4x² -17x + 60
          f'(x) = 3x² -8x  -17
       """
       # polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60]) → [3, -8, -17]
       n = len(coefficients)
       powers = reversed(range(1, n))
       return list(map(operator.mul, coefficients, powers))

   def sieve(n):
       "Primes less than n."
       # sieve(30) → 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
       if n > 2:
           yield 2
       start = 3
       data = bytearray((0, 1)) * (n // 2)
       limit = math.isqrt(n) + 1
       for p in iter_index(data, 1, start, limit):
           yield from iter_index(data, 1, start, p*p)
           data[p*p : n : p+p] = bytes(len(range(p*p, n, p+p)))
           start = p*p
       yield from iter_index(data, 1, start)

   def factor(n):
       "Prime factors of n."
       # factor(99) → 3 3 11
       # factor(1_000_000_000_000_007) → 47 59 360620266859
       # factor(1_000_000_000_000_403) → 1000000000000403
       for prime in sieve(math.isqrt(n) + 1):
           while not n % prime:
               yield prime
               n //= prime
               if n == 1:
                   return
       if n > 1:
           yield n

   def totient(n):
       "Count of natural numbers up to n that are coprime to n."
       # https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html
       # totient(12) → 4 because len([1, 5, 7, 11]) == 4
       for p in unique_justseen(factor(n)):
           n -= n // p
       return n
