2. 拡張の型の定義: チュートリアル
*********************************

Python では、組み込みの "str" 型や "list" 型のような Python コードから
操作できる新しい型を C 拡張モジュールの作者が定義できます。 全ての拡張
の型のコードはあるパターンに従うのですが、書き始める前に理解しておくべ
き細かいことがあります。 このドキュメントはその話題についてのやさしい
入門です。


2.1. 基本的なこと
=================

*CPython* ランタイムは Python の全てのオブジェクトを、 Python の全ての
オブジェクトの "基底型 (base type)" である PyObject* 型の変数と見なし
ます。 "PyObject" 構造体自身は *参照カウント* と、オブジェクトの "型オ
ブジェクト" へのポインタのみを持ちます。ここには動作が定義されています
; 型オブジェクトは、例えば、ある属性があるオブジェクトから検索されたり
、メソッドが呼ばれたり、他のオブジェクトによって操作されたりしたときに
、どの (C) 関数がインタープリターから呼ばれるのかを決定します。これら
の C 関数は "型メソッド (type method)" と呼ばれます。

それなので、新しい拡張の型を定義したいときは、新しい型オブジェクトを作
成すればよいわけです。

この手のことは例を見たほうが早いでしょうから、以下に C 拡張モジュール
"custom" にある "Custom" という名前の新しい型を定義する、最小限ながら
完全なモジュールをあげておきます:

注釈:

  ここで紹介している例は、 *静的な* 拡張の型を定義する伝統的な実装方法
  です。 これはほとんどの場面で十分なものなのです。 C API では、
  "PyType_FromSpec()" 関数を使い、ヒープ上に配置された拡張の型も定義で
  きますが、これについてはこのチュートリアルでは扱いません。

   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
   #include <Python.h>

   typedef struct {
       PyObject_HEAD
       /* Type-specific fields go here. */
   } CustomObject;

   static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
       PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
       .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
       .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
       .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
       .tp_itemsize = 0,
       .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
       .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
   };

   static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
       PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
       .m_name = "custom",
       .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
       .m_size = -1,
   };

   PyMODINIT_FUNC
   PyInit_custom(void)
   {
       PyObject *m;
       if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
           return NULL;

       m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
       if (m == NULL)
           return NULL;

       Py_INCREF(&CustomType);
       if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
           Py_DECREF(&CustomType);
           Py_DECREF(m);
           return NULL;
       }

       return m;
   }

一度に把握するにはちょっと量が多いですが、前の章よりはとっつきやすくな
っていることと思います。このファイルでは、3つの要素が定義されています:

1. "Custom" **オブジェクト** が何を含んでいるか: これが "CustomObject"
   構造体で、 "Custom" インスタンスごとに1回だけメモリ確保が行われます
   。

2. "Custom" **型** がどのように振る舞うか: これが "CustomType" 構造体
   で、フラグと関数ポインタの集まりを定義しています。特定の操作が要求
   されたときに、この関数ポインタをインタープリターが見に行きます。

3. "custom" モジュールをどう初期化するか: これが "PyInit_custom" 関数
   とそれに関係する "custommodule" 構造体です。

まず最初はこれです:

   typedef struct {
       PyObject_HEAD
   } CustomObject;

これが Custom オブジェクトの内容です。 "PyObject_HEAD" はそれぞれのオ
ブジェクト構造体の先頭に必須なもので、 "PyObject" 型の "ob_base" とい
う名前のフィールドを定義します。 "PyObject" 型には (それぞれ "Py_TYPE"
マクロおよび "Py_REFCNT" マクロからアクセスできる) 型オブジェクトへの
ポインタと参照カウントが格納されています。このマクロが用意されている理
由は、構造体のレイアウトを抽象化し、デバッグビルドでフィールドを追加で
きるようにするためです。

注釈:

  上の例では "PyObject_HEAD" マクロの後にセミコロンはありません。 うっ
  かりセミコロンを追加しないように気を付けてください: これを警告するコ
  ンパイラもあります。

もちろん、一般的にはオブジェクトは標準的な "PyObject_HEAD" ボイラープ
レートの他にもデータを保持しています; 例えば、これは Python 標準の浮動
小数点数の定義です:

   typedef struct {
       PyObject_HEAD
       double ob_fval;
   } PyFloatObject;

2つ目は型オブジェクトの定義です。

   static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
       PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
       .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
       .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
       .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
       .tp_itemsize = 0,
       .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
       .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
   };

注釈:

  上にあるように C99 スタイルの指示付き初期化子を使って、
  "PyTypeObject" の特に関心の無いフィールドまで全て並べたり、フィール
  ドを宣言する順序に気を使ったりせずに済ませるのをお薦めします。

"object.h" にある実際の "PyTypeObject" の定義には上の定義にあるよりも
もっと多くの フィールド があります。 ここに出てきていないフィールドは
C コンパイラによってゼロで埋められるので、必要でない限り明示的には値の
指定をしないのが一般的な作法になっています。

一度に1つずつフィールドを取り上げていきましょう:

   PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)

この行は、上で触れた "ob_base" フィールドの初期化に必須のボイラープレ
ートです。

   .tp_name = "custom.Custom",

実装している型の名前です。 これは、オブジェクトのデフォルトの文字列表
現やエラーメッセージに現れます。例えば次の通りです:

   >>> "" + custom.Custom()
   Traceback (most recent call last):
     File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
   TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str

型の名前が、モジュール名とモジュールにおける型の名前の両方をドットでつ
ないだ名前になっていることに注意してください。この場合は、モジュールは
"custom" で型は "Custom" なので、型の名前を "custom.Custom" に設定しま
した。実際のドット付きのインポートパスを使うのは、 "pydoc" モジュール
や "pickle" モジュールと互換性を持たせるために重要なのです。

   .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
   .tp_itemsize = 0,

これは、新しい "Custom" インスタンスを作るときに Python が割り当てるべ
きメモリがどのくらいなのかを知るためのものです。 "tp_itemsize" は可変
サイズのオブジェクトでのみ使うものなので、サイズが可変でないオブジェク
トでは 0 にすべきです。

注釈:

  If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and your type
  has the same "tp_basicsize" as its base type, you may have problems
  with multiple inheritance.  A Python subclass of your type will have
  to list your type first in its "__bases__", or else it will not be
  able to call your type's "__new__()" method without getting an
  error.  You can avoid this problem by ensuring that your type has a
  larger value for "tp_basicsize" than its base type does.  Most of
  the time, this will be true anyway, because either your base type
  will be "object", or else you will be adding data members to your
  base type, and therefore increasing its size.

"Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT" にクラスフラグを設定します。

   .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,

すべての型はフラグにこの定数を含めておく必要があります。これは最低でも
Python 3.3 までに定義されているすべてのメンバを許可します。それ以上の
メンバが必要なら、対応するフラグの OR をとる必要があります。

この型の docstring は "tp_doc" に入れます。

   .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),

オブジェクトが生成できるように、 "tp_new" ハンドラを提供する必要があり
ます。これは Python のメソッド "__new__()" と同等のものですが、明示的
に与える必要があります。今の場合では、 API 関数の
"PyType_GenericNew()" として提供されるデフォルトの実装をそのまま使えま
す。

   .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,

ファイルの残りの部分はきっと馴染みやすいものだと思いますが、
"PyInit_custom()" の一部のコードはそうではないでしょう:

   if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
       return;

これは、 "NULL" に初期化された "ob_type" も含めて、いくつかのメンバー
を適切なデフォルト値で埋めて、 "Custom" 型を初期化します。

   Py_INCREF(&CustomType);
   if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
       Py_DECREF(&CustomType);
       Py_DECREF(m);
       return NULL;
   }

これは型をモジュールの辞書に追加します。こうすることで "Custom" クラス
の呼び出しで "Custom" インスタンスが作成できるようになります:

   >>> import custom
   >>> mycustom = custom.Custom()

That's it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a
file called "custom.c" and:

   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
   setup(name="custom", version="1.0",
         ext_modules=[Extension("custom", ["custom.c"])])

そして "setup.py" というファイルにこのように書き込み、そして、以下のよ
うに

   $ python setup.py build

at a shell should produce a file "custom.so" in a subdirectory; move
to that directory and fire up Python --- you should be able to "import
custom" and play around with Custom objects.

そんなにむずかしくありません、よね?

もちろん、現在の Custom 型は面白みに欠けています。何もデータを持ってい
ないし、何もできません。継承してサブクラスを作ることさえできないのです
。

注釈:

  While this documentation showcases the standard "distutils" module
  for building C extensions, it is recommended in real-world use cases
  to use the newer and better-maintained "setuptools" library.
  Documentation on how to do this is out of scope for this document
  and can be found in the Python Packaging User's Guide.


2.2. 基本のサンプルにデータとメソッドを追加する
===============================================

この基本のサンプルにデータとメソッドを追加してみましょう。ついでに、こ
の型を基底クラスとしても利用できるようにします。ここでは新しいモジュー
ル "custom2" をつくり、これらの機能を追加します:

   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
   #include <Python.h>
   #include "structmember.h"

   typedef struct {
       PyObject_HEAD
       PyObject *first; /* first name */
       PyObject *last;  /* last name */
       int number;
   } CustomObject;

   static void
   Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
   {
       Py_XDECREF(self->first);
       Py_XDECREF(self->last);
       Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
   }

   static PyObject *
   Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       CustomObject *self;
       self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
       if (self != NULL) {
           self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
           if (self->first == NULL) {
               Py_DECREF(self);
               return NULL;
           }
           self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
           if (self->last == NULL) {
               Py_DECREF(self);
               return NULL;
           }
           self->number = 0;
       }
       return (PyObject *) self;
   }

   static int
   Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
       PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

       if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                        &first, &last,
                                        &self->number))
           return -1;

       if (first) {
           tmp = self->first;
           Py_INCREF(first);
           self->first = first;
           Py_XDECREF(tmp);
       }
       if (last) {
           tmp = self->last;
           Py_INCREF(last);
           self->last = last;
           Py_XDECREF(tmp);
       }
       return 0;
   }

   static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
       {"first", T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
        "first name"},
       {"last", T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
        "last name"},
       {"number", T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
        "custom number"},
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

   static PyObject *
   Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
   {
       if (self->first == NULL) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
           return NULL;
       }
       if (self->last == NULL) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
           return NULL;
       }
       return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
   }

   static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
       {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
        "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
       },
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

   static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
       PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
       .tp_name = "custom2.Custom",
       .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
       .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
       .tp_itemsize = 0,
       .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
       .tp_new = Custom_new,
       .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
       .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
       .tp_members = Custom_members,
       .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
   };

   static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
       PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
       .m_name = "custom2",
       .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
       .m_size = -1,
   };

   PyMODINIT_FUNC
   PyInit_custom2(void)
   {
       PyObject *m;
       if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
           return NULL;

       m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
       if (m == NULL)
           return NULL;

       Py_INCREF(&CustomType);
       if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
           Py_DECREF(&CustomType);
           Py_DECREF(m);
           return NULL;
       }

       return m;
   }

モジュールのこのバージョンでは、いくつもの変更をおこないます。

We've added an extra include:

   #include <structmember.h>

This include provides declarations that we use to handle attributes,
as described a bit later.

"Custom" 型は そのC構造体に 3つのデータ属性 *first* 、 *last* 、および
*number* をもつようになりました。 *first* と *last* 属性はファーストネ
ームとラストネームを格納した Python 文字列で、 *number* 属性は C言語で
の整数の値です。

これにしたがうと、オブジェクトの構造体は次のようになります:

   typedef struct {
       PyObject_HEAD
       PyObject *first; /* first name */
       PyObject *last;  /* last name */
       int number;
   } CustomObject;

いまや管理すべきデータができたので、オブジェクトの割り当てと解放に際し
てはより慎重になる必要があります。最低限、オブジェクトの解放メソッドが
必要です:

   static void
   Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
   {
       Py_XDECREF(self->first);
       Py_XDECREF(self->last);
       Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
   }

この関数は "tp_dealloc" メンバに代入されます。

   .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,

このメソッドは、まず二つのPython 属性の参照カウントをクリアします。
"Py_XDECREF()" は引数が "NULL" のケースを正しく扱えます (これは、
"tp_new" が途中で失敗した場合に起こりえます) 。このメソッドは、つぎに
オブジェクトの型 ("Py_TYPE(self)" で算出します) のメンバ "tp_free" を
呼び出し、オブジェクトのメモリを開放します。オブジェクトの型が
"CustomType" であるとは限らない点に注意してください。なぜなら、オブジ
ェクトはサブクラスのインスタンスかもしれないからです。

注釈:

  The explicit cast to "destructor" above is needed because we defined
  "Custom_dealloc" to take a "CustomObject *" argument, but the
  "tp_dealloc" function pointer expects to receive a "PyObject *"
  argument.  Otherwise, the compiler will emit a warning.  This is
  object-oriented polymorphism, in C!

ファーストネームとラストネームを空文字列に初期化しておきたいので、
"tp_new" の実装を追加することにしましょう:

   static PyObject *
   Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       CustomObject *self;
       self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
       if (self != NULL) {
           self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
           if (self->first == NULL) {
               Py_DECREF(self);
               return NULL;
           }
           self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
           if (self->last == NULL) {
               Py_DECREF(self);
               return NULL;
           }
           self->number = 0;
       }
       return (PyObject *) self;
   }

そしてこれを "tp_new" メンバとしてインストールします:

   .tp_new = Custom_new,

The "tp_new" handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to
initializing) objects of the type.  It is exposed in Python as the
"__new__()" method. It is not required to define a "tp_new" member,
and indeed many extension types will simply reuse
"PyType_GenericNew()" as done in the first version of the "Custom"
type above.  In this case, we use the "tp_new" handler to initialize
the "first" and "last" attributes to non-"NULL" default values.

"tp_new" is passed the type being instantiated (not necessarily
"CustomType", if a subclass is instantiated) and any arguments passed
when the type was called, and is expected to return the instance
created.  "tp_new" handlers always accept positional and keyword
arguments, but they often ignore the arguments, leaving the argument
handling to initializer (a.k.a. "tp_init" in C or "__init__" in
Python) methods.

注釈:

  "tp_new" は明示的に "tp_init" を呼び出してはいけません、これはインタ
  ープリタが自分で行うためです。

この "tp_new" の実装は、"tp_alloc" スロットを呼び出してメモリを割り当
てます:

   self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);

メモリ割り当ては失敗するかもしれないので、先に進む前に "tp_alloc" の結
果が "NULL" でないかチェックしなければなりません。

注釈:

  We didn't fill the "tp_alloc" slot ourselves. Rather
  "PyType_Ready()" fills it for us by inheriting it from our base
  class, which is "object" by default.  Most types use the default
  allocation strategy.

注釈:

  もし協力的な "tp_new" (基底タイプの "tp_new" または "__new__()" を呼
  んでいるもの) を作りたいのならば、実行時のメソッド解決順序をつかって
  どのメソッドを呼びだすかを決定しようとしては *いけません* 。常に呼び
  出す型を静的に決めておき、直接その "tp_new" を呼び出すか、あるいは
  "type->tp_base->tp_new" を経由してください。こうしないと、あなたが作
  成したタイプの Python サブクラスが他の Python で定義されたクラスも継
  承している場合にうまく動かない場合があります。 (とりわけ、そのような
  サブクラスのインスタンスを "TypeError" を出さずに作ることが不可能に
  なります。)

We also define an initialization function which accepts arguments to
provide initial values for our instance:

   static int
   Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
       PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

       if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                        &first, &last,
                                        &self->number))
           return -1;

       if (first) {
           tmp = self->first;
           Py_INCREF(first);
           self->first = first;
           Py_XDECREF(tmp);
       }
       if (last) {
           tmp = self->last;
           Py_INCREF(last);
           self->last = last;
           Py_XDECREF(tmp);
       }
       return 0;
   }

これは "tp_init" メンバに代入されます。

   .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,

The "tp_init" slot is exposed in Python as the "__init__()" method.
It is used to initialize an object after it's created.  Initializers
always accept positional and keyword arguments, and they should return
either "0" on success or "-1" on error.

Unlike the "tp_new" handler, there is no guarantee that "tp_init" is
called at all (for example, the "pickle" module by default doesn't
call "__init__()" on unpickled instances).  It can also be called
multiple times.  Anyone can call the "__init__()" method on our
objects.  For this reason, we have to be extra careful when assigning
the new attribute values.  We might be tempted, for example to assign
the "first" member like this:

   if (first) {
       Py_XDECREF(self->first);
       Py_INCREF(first);
       self->first = first;
   }

But this would be risky.  Our type doesn't restrict the type of the
"first" member, so it could be any kind of object.  It could have a
destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the
"first" member; or that destructor could release the *Global
interpreter Lock* and let arbitrary code run in other threads that
accesses and modifies our object.

To be paranoid and protect ourselves against this possibility, we
almost always reassign members before decrementing their reference
counts.  When don't we have to do this?

* その参照カウントが 1 より大きいと確信できる場合

* when we know that deallocation of the object [1] will neither
  release the *GIL* nor cause any calls back into our type's code;

* when decrementing a reference count in a "tp_dealloc" handler on a
  type which doesn't support cyclic garbage collection [2].

ここではインスタンス変数を属性として見えるようにしたいのですが、これに
はいくつもの方法があります。もっとも簡単な方法は、メンバの定義を与える
ことです:

   static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
       {"first", T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
        "first name"},
       {"last", T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
        "last name"},
       {"number", T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
        "custom number"},
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

そして、この定義を "tp_members" スロットに入れましょう:

   .tp_members = Custom_members,

Each member definition has a member name, type, offset, access flags
and documentation string.  See the 総称的な属性を管理する section
below for details.

A disadvantage of this approach is that it doesn't provide a way to
restrict the types of objects that can be assigned to the Python
attributes.  We expect the first and last names to be strings, but any
Python objects can be assigned. Further, the attributes can be
deleted, setting the C pointers to "NULL".  Even though we can make
sure the members are initialized to non-"NULL" values, the members can
be set to "NULL" if the attributes are deleted.

We define a single method, "Custom.name()", that outputs the objects
name as the concatenation of the first and last names.

   static PyObject *
   Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
   {
       if (self->first == NULL) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
           return NULL;
       }
       if (self->last == NULL) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
           return NULL;
       }
       return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
   }

The method is implemented as a C function that takes a "Custom" (or
"Custom" subclass) instance as the first argument.  Methods always
take an instance as the first argument. Methods often take positional
and keyword arguments as well, but in this case we don't take any and
don't need to accept a positional argument tuple or keyword argument
dictionary. This method is equivalent to the Python method:

   def name(self):
       return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last)

Note that we have to check for the possibility that our "first" and
"last" members are "NULL".  This is because they can be deleted, in
which case they are set to "NULL".  It would be better to prevent
deletion of these attributes and to restrict the attribute values to
be strings.  We'll see how to do that in the next section.

さて、メソッドを定義したので、ここでメソッド定義用の配列を作成する必要
があります:

   static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
       {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
        "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
       },
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

(note that we used the "METH_NOARGS" flag to indicate that the method
is expecting no arguments other than *self*)

and assign it to the "tp_methods" slot:

   .tp_methods = Custom_methods,

Finally, we'll make our type usable as a base class for subclassing.
We've written our methods carefully so far so that they don't make any
assumptions about the type of the object being created or used, so all
we need to do is to add the "Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE" to our class flag
definition:

   .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,

We rename "PyInit_custom()" to "PyInit_custom2()", update the module
name in the "PyModuleDef" struct, and update the full class name in
the "PyTypeObject" struct.

Finally, we update our "setup.py" file to build the new module:

   from distutils.core import setup, Extension
   setup(name="custom", version="1.0",
         ext_modules=[
            Extension("custom", ["custom.c"]),
            Extension("custom2", ["custom2.c"]),
            ])


2.3. データ属性をこまかく制御する
=================================

In this section, we'll provide finer control over how the "first" and
"last" attributes are set in the "Custom" example. In the previous
version of our module, the instance variables "first" and "last" could
be set to non-string values or even deleted. We want to make sure that
these attributes always contain strings.

   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
   #include <Python.h>
   #include "structmember.h"

   typedef struct {
       PyObject_HEAD
       PyObject *first; /* first name */
       PyObject *last;  /* last name */
       int number;
   } CustomObject;

   static void
   Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
   {
       Py_XDECREF(self->first);
       Py_XDECREF(self->last);
       Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
   }

   static PyObject *
   Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       CustomObject *self;
       self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
       if (self != NULL) {
           self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
           if (self->first == NULL) {
               Py_DECREF(self);
               return NULL;
           }
           self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
           if (self->last == NULL) {
               Py_DECREF(self);
               return NULL;
           }
           self->number = 0;
       }
       return (PyObject *) self;
   }

   static int
   Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
       PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

       if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                        &first, &last,
                                        &self->number))
           return -1;

       if (first) {
           tmp = self->first;
           Py_INCREF(first);
           self->first = first;
           Py_DECREF(tmp);
       }
       if (last) {
           tmp = self->last;
           Py_INCREF(last);
           self->last = last;
           Py_DECREF(tmp);
       }
       return 0;
   }

   static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
       {"number", T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
        "custom number"},
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

   static PyObject *
   Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
   {
       Py_INCREF(self->first);
       return self->first;
   }

   static int
   Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
   {
       PyObject *tmp;
       if (value == NULL) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
           return -1;
       }
       if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                           "The first attribute value must be a string");
           return -1;
       }
       tmp = self->first;
       Py_INCREF(value);
       self->first = value;
       Py_DECREF(tmp);
       return 0;
   }

   static PyObject *
   Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
   {
       Py_INCREF(self->last);
       return self->last;
   }

   static int
   Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
   {
       PyObject *tmp;
       if (value == NULL) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
           return -1;
       }
       if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                           "The last attribute value must be a string");
           return -1;
       }
       tmp = self->last;
       Py_INCREF(value);
       self->last = value;
       Py_DECREF(tmp);
       return 0;
   }

   static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
       {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
        "first name", NULL},
       {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
        "last name", NULL},
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

   static PyObject *
   Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
   {
       return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
   }

   static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
       {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
        "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
       },
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

   static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
       PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
       .tp_name = "custom3.Custom",
       .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
       .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
       .tp_itemsize = 0,
       .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
       .tp_new = Custom_new,
       .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
       .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
       .tp_members = Custom_members,
       .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
       .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
   };

   static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
       PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
       .m_name = "custom3",
       .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
       .m_size = -1,
   };

   PyMODINIT_FUNC
   PyInit_custom3(void)
   {
       PyObject *m;
       if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
           return NULL;

       m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
       if (m == NULL)
           return NULL;

       Py_INCREF(&CustomType);
       if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
           Py_DECREF(&CustomType);
           Py_DECREF(m);
           return NULL;
       }

       return m;
   }

To provide greater control, over the "first" and "last" attributes,
we'll use custom getter and setter functions.  Here are the functions
for getting and setting the "first" attribute:

   static PyObject *
   Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
   {
       Py_INCREF(self->first);
       return self->first;
   }

   static int
   Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
   {
       PyObject *tmp;
       if (value == NULL) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
           return -1;
       }
       if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                           "The first attribute value must be a string");
           return -1;
       }
       tmp = self->first;
       Py_INCREF(value);
       self->first = value;
       Py_DECREF(tmp);
       return 0;
   }

The getter function is passed a "Custom" object and a "closure", which
is a void pointer.  In this case, the closure is ignored.  (The
closure supports an advanced usage in which definition data is passed
to the getter and setter. This could, for example, be used to allow a
single set of getter and setter functions that decide the attribute to
get or set based on data in the closure.)

The setter function is passed the "Custom" object, the new value, and
the closure.  The new value may be "NULL", in which case the attribute
is being deleted.  In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute
is deleted or if its new value is not a string.

ここでは "PyGetSetDef" 構造体の配列をつくります:

   static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
       {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
        "first name", NULL},
       {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
        "last name", NULL},
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

そしてこれを "tp_getset" スロットに登録します:

   .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,

The last item in a "PyGetSetDef" structure is the "closure" mentioned
above.  In this case, we aren't using a closure, so we just pass
"NULL".

また、メンバ定義からはこれらの属性を除いておきましょう:

   static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
       {"number", T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
        "custom number"},
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

また、ここでは "tp_init" ハンドラも渡されるものとして文字列のみを許可
するように修正する必要があります [3]:

   static int
   Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
       PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

       if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                        &first, &last,
                                        &self->number))
           return -1;

       if (first) {
           tmp = self->first;
           Py_INCREF(first);
           self->first = first;
           Py_DECREF(tmp);
       }
       if (last) {
           tmp = self->last;
           Py_INCREF(last);
           self->last = last;
           Py_DECREF(tmp);
       }
       return 0;
   }

With these changes, we can assure that the "first" and "last" members
are never "NULL" so we can remove checks for "NULL" values in almost
all cases. This means that most of the "Py_XDECREF()" calls can be
converted to "Py_DECREF()" calls.  The only place we can't change
these calls is in the "tp_dealloc" implementation, where there is the
possibility that the initialization of these members failed in
"tp_new".

さて、先ほどもしたように、このモジュール初期化関数と初期化関数内にある
モジュール名を変更しましょう。そして "setup.py" ファイルに追加の定義を
くわえます。


2.4. 循環ガベージコレクションをサポートする
===========================================

Python は *循環ガベージコレクタ (GC) 機能* をもっており、これは不要な
オブジェクトを、たとえ参照カウントがゼロでなくても発見することができま
す。そのような状況はオブジェクトの参照が循環しているときに起こりえます
。たとえば以下の例を考えてください:

   >>> l = []
   >>> l.append(l)
   >>> del l

この例では、自分自身をふくむリストを作りました。たとえこのリストを 削
除しても、それは自分自身への参照をまだ持ちつづけますから、参照カウント
はゼロにはなりません。嬉しいことに Python には循環ガベージコレクタは最
終的にはこのリストが不要であることを検出し、解放できます。

In the second version of the "Custom" example, we allowed any kind of
object to be stored in the "first" or "last" attributes [4]. Besides,
in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing "Custom", and
subclasses may add arbitrary attributes.  For any of those two
reasons, "Custom" objects can participate in cycles:

   >>> import custom3
   >>> class Derived(custom3.Custom): pass
   ...
   >>> n = Derived()
   >>> n.some_attribute = n

To allow a "Custom" instance participating in a reference cycle to be
properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our "Custom" type
needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables
these slots:

   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
   #include <Python.h>
   #include "structmember.h"

   typedef struct {
       PyObject_HEAD
       PyObject *first; /* first name */
       PyObject *last;  /* last name */
       int number;
   } CustomObject;

   static int
   Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
   {
       Py_VISIT(self->first);
       Py_VISIT(self->last);
       return 0;
   }

   static int
   Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
   {
       Py_CLEAR(self->first);
       Py_CLEAR(self->last);
       return 0;
   }

   static void
   Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
   {
       PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
       Custom_clear(self);
       Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
   }

   static PyObject *
   Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       CustomObject *self;
       self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
       if (self != NULL) {
           self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
           if (self->first == NULL) {
               Py_DECREF(self);
               return NULL;
           }
           self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
           if (self->last == NULL) {
               Py_DECREF(self);
               return NULL;
           }
           self->number = 0;
       }
       return (PyObject *) self;
   }

   static int
   Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
       PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

       if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                        &first, &last,
                                        &self->number))
           return -1;

       if (first) {
           tmp = self->first;
           Py_INCREF(first);
           self->first = first;
           Py_DECREF(tmp);
       }
       if (last) {
           tmp = self->last;
           Py_INCREF(last);
           self->last = last;
           Py_DECREF(tmp);
       }
       return 0;
   }

   static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
       {"number", T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
        "custom number"},
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

   static PyObject *
   Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
   {
       Py_INCREF(self->first);
       return self->first;
   }

   static int
   Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
   {
       if (value == NULL) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
           return -1;
       }
       if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                           "The first attribute value must be a string");
           return -1;
       }
       Py_INCREF(value);
       Py_CLEAR(self->first);
       self->first = value;
       return 0;
   }

   static PyObject *
   Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
   {
       Py_INCREF(self->last);
       return self->last;
   }

   static int
   Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
   {
       if (value == NULL) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
           return -1;
       }
       if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
           PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                           "The last attribute value must be a string");
           return -1;
       }
       Py_INCREF(value);
       Py_CLEAR(self->last);
       self->last = value;
       return 0;
   }

   static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
       {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
        "first name", NULL},
       {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
        "last name", NULL},
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

   static PyObject *
   Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
   {
       return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
   }

   static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
       {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
        "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
       },
       {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
   };

   static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
       PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
       .tp_name = "custom4.Custom",
       .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
       .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
       .tp_itemsize = 0,
       .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,
       .tp_new = Custom_new,
       .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
       .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
       .tp_traverse = (traverseproc) Custom_traverse,
       .tp_clear = (inquiry) Custom_clear,
       .tp_members = Custom_members,
       .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
       .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
   };

   static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
       PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
       .m_name = "custom4",
       .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
       .m_size = -1,
   };

   PyMODINIT_FUNC
   PyInit_custom4(void)
   {
       PyObject *m;
       if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
           return NULL;

       m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
       if (m == NULL)
           return NULL;

       Py_INCREF(&CustomType);
       if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
           Py_DECREF(&CustomType);
           Py_DECREF(m);
           return NULL;
       }

       return m;
   }

First, the traversal method lets the cyclic GC know about subobjects
that could participate in cycles:

   static int
   Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
   {
       int vret;
       if (self->first) {
           vret = visit(self->first, arg);
           if (vret != 0)
               return vret;
       }
       if (self->last) {
           vret = visit(self->last, arg);
           if (vret != 0)
               return vret;
       }
       return 0;
   }

For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
"visit()" function, which is passed to the traversal method. The
"visit()" function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra
argument *arg* passed to the traversal method.  It returns an integer
value that must be returned if it is non-zero.

Python provides a "Py_VISIT()" macro that automates calling visit
functions.  With "Py_VISIT()", we can minimize the amount of
boilerplate in "Custom_traverse":

   static int
   Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
   {
       Py_VISIT(self->first);
       Py_VISIT(self->last);
       return 0;
   }

注釈:

  The "tp_traverse" implementation must name its arguments exactly
  *visit* and *arg* in order to use "Py_VISIT()".

Second, we need to provide a method for clearing any subobjects that
can participate in cycles:

   static int
   Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
   {
       Py_CLEAR(self->first);
       Py_CLEAR(self->last);
       return 0;
   }

Notice the use of the "Py_CLEAR()" macro.  It is the recommended and
safe way to clear data attributes of arbitrary types while
decrementing their reference counts.  If you were to call
"Py_XDECREF()" instead on the attribute before setting it to "NULL",
there is a possibility that the attribute's destructor would call back
into code that reads the attribute again (*especially* if there is a
reference cycle).

注釈:

  You could emulate "Py_CLEAR()" by writing:

     PyObject *tmp;
     tmp = self->first;
     self->first = NULL;
     Py_XDECREF(tmp);

  Nevertheless, it is much easier and less error-prone to always use
  "Py_CLEAR()" when deleting an attribute.  Don't try to micro-
  optimize at the expense of robustness!

The deallocator "Custom_dealloc" may call arbitrary code when clearing
attributes.  It means the circular GC can be triggered inside the
function. Since the GC assumes reference count is not zero, we need to
untrack the object from the GC by calling "PyObject_GC_UnTrack()"
before clearing members. Here is our reimplemented deallocator using
"PyObject_GC_UnTrack()" and "Custom_clear":

   static void
   Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
   {
       PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
       Custom_clear(self);
       Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
   }

Finally, we add the "Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" flag to the class flags:

   .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,

これで完了です。 "tp_alloc" スロットまたは "tp_free" ハンドラが書かれ
ていれば、それらを循環ガベージコレクションに使えるよう修正すればよいの
です。ほとんどの拡張機能は自動的に提供されるバージョンを使うでしょう。


2.5. 他の型のサブクラスを作る
=============================

既存の型を継承した新しい拡張型を作成することができます。組み込み型から
継承するのは特に簡単です。必要な "PyTypeObject" を簡単に利用できるから
です。それに比べて、 "PyTypeObject" 構造体を拡張モジュール間で共有する
のは難しいです。

In this example we will create a "SubList" type that inherits from the
built-in "list" type. The new type will be completely compatible with
regular lists, but will have an additional "increment()" method that
increases an internal counter:

   >>> import sublist
   >>> s = sublist.SubList(range(3))
   >>> s.extend(s)
   >>> print(len(s))
   6
   >>> print(s.increment())
   1
   >>> print(s.increment())
   2

   #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
   #include <Python.h>

   typedef struct {
       PyListObject list;
       int state;
   } SubListObject;

   static PyObject *
   SubList_increment(SubListObject *self, PyObject *unused)
   {
       self->state++;
       return PyLong_FromLong(self->state);
   }

   static PyMethodDef SubList_methods[] = {
       {"increment", (PyCFunction) SubList_increment, METH_NOARGS,
        PyDoc_STR("increment state counter")},
       {NULL},
   };

   static int
   SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
           return -1;
       self->state = 0;
       return 0;
   }

   static PyTypeObject SubListType = {
       PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
       .tp_name = "sublist.SubList",
       .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("SubList objects"),
       .tp_basicsize = sizeof(SubListObject),
       .tp_itemsize = 0,
       .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
       .tp_init = (initproc) SubList_init,
       .tp_methods = SubList_methods,
   };

   static PyModuleDef sublistmodule = {
       PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
       .m_name = "sublist",
       .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
       .m_size = -1,
   };

   PyMODINIT_FUNC
   PyInit_sublist(void)
   {
       PyObject *m;
       SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
       if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
           return NULL;

       m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
       if (m == NULL)
           return NULL;

       Py_INCREF(&SubListType);
       if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
           Py_DECREF(&SubListType);
           Py_DECREF(m);
           return NULL;
       }

       return m;
   }

As you can see, the source code closely resembles the "Custom"
examples in previous sections. We will break down the main differences
between them.

   typedef struct {
       PyListObject list;
       int state;
   } SubListObject;

The primary difference for derived type objects is that the base
type's object structure must be the first value.  The base type will
already include the "PyObject_HEAD()" at the beginning of its
structure.

When a Python object is a "SubList" instance, its "PyObject *" pointer
can be safely cast to both "PyListObject *" and "SubListObject *":

   static int
   SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
   {
       if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
           return -1;
       self->state = 0;
       return 0;
   }

We see above how to call through to the "__init__()" method of the
base type.

This pattern is important when writing a type with custom "tp_new" and
"tp_dealloc" members.  The "tp_new" handler should not actually create
the memory for the object with its "tp_alloc", but let the base class
handle it by calling its own "tp_new".

The "PyTypeObject" struct supports a "tp_base" specifying the type's
concrete base class.  Due to cross-platform compiler issues, you can't
fill that field directly with a reference to "PyList_Type"; it should
be done later in the module initialization function:

   PyMODINIT_FUNC
   PyInit_sublist(void)
   {
       PyObject* m;
       SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
       if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
           return NULL;

       m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
       if (m == NULL)
           return NULL;

       Py_INCREF(&SubListType);
       if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
           Py_DECREF(&SubListType);
           Py_DECREF(m);
           return NULL;
       }

       return m;
   }

"PyType_Read()" を呼ぶ前に、型の構造体の "tp_base" スロットは埋められ
ていなければなりません。既存の型を継承する際には、 "tp_alloc" スロット
を "PyType_GenericNew()" で埋める必要はありません。 -- 基底型のアロケ
ーション関数が継承されます。

After that, calling "PyType_Ready()" and adding the type object to the
module is the same as with the basic "Custom" examples.

-[ 脚注 ]-

[1] これはそのオブジェクトが文字列や実数などの基本タイプであるような時
    に成り立ちます。

[2] We relied on this in the "tp_dealloc" handler in this example,
    because our type doesn't support garbage collection.

[3] We now know that the first and last members are strings, so
    perhaps we could be less careful about decrementing their
    reference counts, however, we accept instances of string
    subclasses.  Even though deallocating normal strings won't call
    back into our objects, we can't guarantee that deallocating an
    instance of a string subclass won't call back into our objects.

[4] Also, even with our attributes restricted to strings instances,
    the user could pass arbitrary "str" subclasses and therefore still
    create reference cycles.
