32.12. "dis" – Désassembleur pour le code intermédiaire de Python
*****************************************************************

**Code source :** Lib/dis.py

======================================================================

La bibliothèque  "dis" supporte l'analyse du *bytecode* CPython en le
désassemblant. Le code intermédiaire CPython, que cette bibliothèque
prend en paramètre, est défini dans le fichier "Include/opcode.h" et
est utilisé par le compilateur et l'interpréteur.

**CPython implementation detail:** Le code intermédiaire est un détail
d'implémentation de l'interpréteur CPython. Il n'y a pas de garantie
que le code intermédiaire sera ajouté, retiré, ou modifié dans les
différentes versions de Python. L'utilisation de cette bibliothèque
ne fonctionne pas nécessairement sur les machines virtuelles Python ni
les différentes versions de Python.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Utilisez 2 bits pour chaque instruction.
Avant, le nombre de bits variait par instruction.

Exemple : Etant donné la fonction "myfunc()" :

   def myfunc(alist):
       return len(alist)

la commande suivante peut-être utilisé pour afficher le désassemblage
de "myfunc()" :

   >>> dis.dis(myfunc)
     2           0 LOAD_GLOBAL              0 (len)
                 2 LOAD_FAST                0 (alist)
                 4 CALL_FUNCTION            1
                 6 RETURN_VALUE

(Le "2" est un numéro de ligne).


32.12.1. Analyse du code intermédiaire
======================================

Nouveau dans la version 3.4.

L'analyse de l'*API* code intermédiaire permet de rassembler des blocs
de code en Python dans une classe "Bytecode", qui permet un accès
facile aux détails du code compilé.

class dis.Bytecode(x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None)

   Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator,
   method, string of source code, or a code object (as returned by
   "compile()").

   Ceci est *wrapper* sur plusieurs fonctions de la liste ci-dessous,
   notamment "get_instructions()", étant donné qu'une itération sur
   une instance de la classe "Bytecode" rend les opérations du code
   intermédiaire des instances de "Instruction".

   Si *first_line* ne vaut pas "None", elle indique le nombre de la
   ligne qui doit être considérée comme première ligne source dans le
   code désassemblé. Autrement, les informations sur la ligne source
   sont prises directement à partir de la classe du code désassemblé.

   Si la valeur de *current_offset* est différente de "None", c'est
   une référence à un offset d'une instruction dans le code
   désassemblé. Cela veut dire que "dis()" va générer un marqueur  de
   " l'instruction en cours" contre le code d'opération donné.

   classmethod from_traceback(tb)

      Construisez une instance "Bytecode" à partir de la trace
      d'appel, en mettant *current_offet* à l'instruction responsable
      de l'exception.

   codeobj

      Le code compilé objet.

   first_line

      La première ligne source du code objet (si disponible)

   dis()

      Retourne une vue formatée des opérations du code intermédiaire
      (la même que celle envoyée par "dis.dis()", mais comme une
      chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes ).

   info()

      Retourne une chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes formatée
      avec des informations détaillées sur l'objet code comme
      "code_info()".

Exemple :

   >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
   >>> for instr in bytecode:
   ...     print(instr.opname)
   ...
   LOAD_GLOBAL
   LOAD_FAST
   CALL_FUNCTION
   RETURN_VALUE


32.12.2. Analyse de fonctions
=============================

La bibliothèque  "dis" comprend également l'analyse des fonctions
suivantes, qui envoient l'entrée directement à la sortie souhaitée.
Elles peuvent être utiles si il n'y a qu'une seule opération à
effectuer, la représentation intermédiaire objet n'étant donc pas
utile dans ce cas:

dis.code_info(x)

   Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object
   information for the supplied function, generator, method, source
   code string or code object.

   Il est à noter que le contenu exact des chaînes de caractères
   figurant dans  les informations du code dépendent fortement sur
   l'implémentation, et peuvent changer arbitrairement sous machines
   virtuelles Python ou les versions de Python.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

dis.show_code(x, *, file=None)

   Affiche des informations détaillées sur le code de la fonction
   fournie, la méthode, la chaîne de caractère du code source ou du
   code objet à *file* (ou bien "sys.stdout" si *file* n'est pas
   spécifié).

   Ceci est un raccourci convenable de "print(code_info(x),
   file=file)", principalement fait pour l'exploration interactive sur
   l'invite de l'interpréteur.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

   Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre *file*.

dis.dis(x=None, *, file=None)

   Disassemble the *x* object.  *x* can denote either a module, a
   class, a method, a function, a generator, a code object, a string
   of source code or a byte sequence of raw bytecode.  For a module,
   it disassembles all functions. For a class, it disassembles all
   methods (including class and static methods). For a code object or
   sequence of raw bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode
   instruction.  Strings are first compiled to code objects with the
   "compile()" built-in function before being disassembled.  If no
   object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.

   Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l'argument du
   fichier *file* si il est fourni, et à "sys.stdout" sinon.

   Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre *file*.

dis.distb(tb=None, *, file=None)

   Désassemble la fonction du haut de la pile des traces d'appels, en
   utilisant la dernière trace d'appels si rien n'a été envoyé.
   L'instruction à l'origine de l'exception est indiquée.

   Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l'argument du
   fichier *file* si il est fourni, et à "sys.stdout" sinon.

   Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre *file*.

dis.disassemble(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None)
dis.disco(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None)

   Désassemble un code objet, en indiquant la dernière instruction si
   *lasti* est fournie. La sortie est répartie sur les colonnes
   suivantes :

   1. le numéro de ligne, pour la première instruction de chaque ligne

   2. l'instruction en cours, indiquée par "-->",

   3. une instruction libellée, indiquée par "> >",

   4. l'adresse de l'instruction,

   5. le nom de le code d'opération,

   6. paramètres de l'opération, et

   7. interprétation des paramètres entre parenthèses.

   L'interprétation du paramètre reconnaît les noms des variables
   locales et globales, des valeurs constantes, des branchements
   cibles, et des opérateurs de comparaison.

   Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l'argument du
   fichier *file* si il est fourni, et à "sys.stdout" sinon.

   Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre *file*.

dis.get_instructions(x, *, first_line=None)

   Retourne un itérateur sur les instructions dans la fonction
   fournie, la méthode, les chaînes de caractères du code source ou
   objet.

   Cet itérateur génère une série de n-uplets de "Instruction" qui
   donnent les détails de chacune des opérations dans le code fourni.

   Si *first_line* ne vaut pas "None", elle indique le nombre de la
   ligne qui doit être considérée comme première ligne source dans le
   code désassemblé. Autrement, les informations sur la ligne source
   sont prises directement à partir de la classe du code désassemblé.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.4.

dis.findlinestarts(code)

   This generator function uses the "co_firstlineno" and "co_lnotab"
   attributes of the code object *code* to find the offsets which are
   starts of lines in the source code.  They are generated as
   "(offset, lineno)" pairs. See Objects/lnotab_notes.txt for the
   "co_lnotab" format and how to decode it.

   Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les numéros de lignes peuvent être
   décroissants. Avant, ils étaient toujours croissants.

dis.findlabels(code)

   Detect all offsets in the code object *code* which are jump
   targets, and return a list of these offsets.

dis.stack_effect(opcode[, oparg])

   Compute the stack effect of *opcode* with argument *oparg*.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.4.


32.12.3. Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python
=========================================================

La fonction "get_instructions()" et la méthode "Bytecode" fournit des
détails sur le code intermédiaire des instructions comme "Instruction"
instances:

class dis.Instruction

   Détails sur le code intermédiaire de l'opération

   opcode

      code numérique pour l'opération, correspondant aux valeurs de
      l'*opcode* ci-dessous et les valeurs du code intermédiaire dans
      la Opcode collections.

   opname

      nom lisible/compréhensible de l'opération

   arg

      le cas échéant, argument numérique de l'opération sinon "None"

   argval

      resolved arg value (if known), otherwise same as arg

   argrepr

      human readable description of operation argument

   offset

      start index of operation within bytecode sequence

   starts_line

      line started by this opcode (if any), otherwise "None"

   is_jump_target

      "True" if other code jumps to here, otherwise "False"

   Nouveau dans la version 3.4.

The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode
instructions.

**General instructions**

NOP

   Do nothing code.  Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer.

POP_TOP

   Removes the top-of-stack (TOS) item.

ROT_TWO

   Swaps the two top-most stack items.

ROT_THREE

   Lifts second and third stack item one position up, moves top down
   to position three.

DUP_TOP

   Duplicates the reference on top of the stack.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

DUP_TOP_TWO

   Duplicates the two references on top of the stack, leaving them in
   the same order.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

**Unary operations**

Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and
push the result back on the stack.

UNARY_POSITIVE

   Implements "TOS = +TOS".

UNARY_NEGATIVE

   Implements "TOS = -TOS".

UNARY_NOT

   Implements "TOS = not TOS".

UNARY_INVERT

   Implements "TOS = ~TOS".

GET_ITER

   Implements "TOS = iter(TOS)".

GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER

   If "TOS" is a *generator iterator* or *coroutine* object it is left
   as is.  Otherwise, implements "TOS = iter(TOS)".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

**Binary operations**

Binary operations remove the top of the stack (TOS) and the second
top-most stack item (TOS1) from the stack.  They perform the
operation, and put the result back on the stack.

BINARY_POWER

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 ** TOS".

BINARY_MULTIPLY

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 * TOS".

BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 @ TOS".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 // TOS".

BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 / TOS".

BINARY_MODULO

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 % TOS".

BINARY_ADD

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 + TOS".

BINARY_SUBTRACT

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 - TOS".

BINARY_SUBSCR

   Implements "TOS = TOS1[TOS]".

BINARY_LSHIFT

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 << TOS".

BINARY_RSHIFT

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 >> TOS".

BINARY_AND

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 & TOS".

BINARY_XOR

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS".

BINARY_OR

   Implements "TOS = TOS1 | TOS".

**In-place operations**

In-place operations are like binary operations, in that they remove
TOS and TOS1, and push the result back on the stack, but the operation
is done in-place when TOS1 supports it, and the resulting TOS may be
(but does not have to be) the original TOS1.

INPLACE_POWER

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 ** TOS".

INPLACE_MULTIPLY

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 * TOS".

INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 @ TOS".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 // TOS".

INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 / TOS".

INPLACE_MODULO

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 % TOS".

INPLACE_ADD

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 + TOS".

INPLACE_SUBTRACT

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 - TOS".

INPLACE_LSHIFT

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 << TOS".

INPLACE_RSHIFT

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 >> TOS".

INPLACE_AND

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 & TOS".

INPLACE_XOR

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS".

INPLACE_OR

   Implements in-place "TOS = TOS1 | TOS".

STORE_SUBSCR

   Implements "TOS1[TOS] = TOS2".

DELETE_SUBSCR

   Implements "del TOS1[TOS]".

**Coroutine opcodes**

GET_AWAITABLE

   Implements "TOS = get_awaitable(TOS)", where "get_awaitable(o)"
   returns "o" if "o" is a coroutine object or a generator object with
   the CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE flag, or resolves "o.__await__".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

GET_AITER

   Implements "TOS = get_awaitable(TOS.__aiter__())".  See
   "GET_AWAITABLE" for details about "get_awaitable"

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

GET_ANEXT

   Implements "PUSH(get_awaitable(TOS.__anext__()))".  See
   "GET_AWAITABLE" for details about "get_awaitable"

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH

   Resolves "__aenter__" and "__aexit__" from the object on top of the
   stack.  Pushes "__aexit__" and result of "__aenter__()" to the
   stack.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

SETUP_ASYNC_WITH

   Creates a new frame object.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

**Miscellaneous opcodes**

PRINT_EXPR

   Implements the expression statement for the interactive mode.  TOS
   is removed from the stack and printed.  In non-interactive mode, an
   expression statement is terminated with "POP_TOP".

BREAK_LOOP

   Terminates a loop due to a "break" statement.

CONTINUE_LOOP(target)

   Continues a loop due to a "continue" statement.  *target* is the
   address to jump to (which should be a "FOR_ITER" instruction).

SET_ADD(i)

   Calls "set.add(TOS1[-i], TOS)".  Used to implement set
   comprehensions.

LIST_APPEND(i)

   Calls "list.append(TOS[-i], TOS)".  Used to implement list
   comprehensions.

MAP_ADD(i)

   Calls "dict.setitem(TOS1[-i], TOS, TOS1)".  Used to implement dict
   comprehensions.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

For all of the "SET_ADD", "LIST_APPEND" and "MAP_ADD" instructions,
while the added value or key/value pair is popped off, the container
object remains on the stack so that it is available for further
iterations of the loop.

RETURN_VALUE

   Returns with TOS to the caller of the function.

YIELD_VALUE

   Pops TOS and yields it from a *generator*.

YIELD_FROM

   Pops TOS and delegates to it as a subiterator from a *generator*.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.3.

SETUP_ANNOTATIONS

   Checks whether "__annotations__" is defined in "locals()", if not
   it is set up to an empty "dict". This opcode is only emitted if a
   class or module body contains *variable annotations* statically.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

IMPORT_STAR

   Loads all symbols not starting with "'_'" directly from the module
   TOS to the local namespace. The module is popped after loading all
   names. This opcode implements "from module import *".

POP_BLOCK

   Removes one block from the block stack.  Per frame, there is a
   stack of blocks, denoting nested loops, try statements, and such.

POP_EXCEPT

   Removes one block from the block stack. The popped block must be an
   exception handler block, as implicitly created when entering an
   except handler.  In addition to popping extraneous values from the
   frame stack, the last three popped values are used to restore the
   exception state.

END_FINALLY

   Terminates a "finally" clause.  The interpreter recalls whether the
   exception has to be re-raised, or whether the function returns, and
   continues with the outer-next block.

LOAD_BUILD_CLASS

   Pushes "builtins.__build_class__()" onto the stack.  It is later
   called by "CALL_FUNCTION" to construct a class.

SETUP_WITH(delta)

   This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts.
   First, it loads "__exit__()" from the context manager and pushes it
   onto the stack for later use by "WITH_CLEANUP".  Then,
   "__enter__()" is called, and a finally block pointing to *delta* is
   pushed.  Finally, the result of calling the enter method is pushed
   onto the stack.  The next opcode will either ignore it ("POP_TOP"),
   or store it in (a) variable(s) ("STORE_FAST", "STORE_NAME", or
   "UNPACK_SEQUENCE").

   Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

WITH_CLEANUP_START

   Cleans up the stack when a "with" statement block exits.  TOS is
   the context manager's "__exit__()" bound method. Below TOS are 1--3
   values indicating how/why the finally clause was entered:

   * SECOND = "None"

   * (SECOND, THIRD) = ("WHY_{RETURN,CONTINUE}"), retval

   * SECOND = "WHY_*"; no retval below it

   * (SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH) = exc_info()

   In the last case, "TOS(SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH)" is called, otherwise
   "TOS(None, None, None)".  Pushes SECOND and result of the call to
   the stack.

WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH

   Pops exception type and result of 'exit' function call from the
   stack.

   If the stack represents an exception, *and* the function call
   returns a 'true' value, this information is "zapped" and replaced
   with a single "WHY_SILENCED" to prevent "END_FINALLY" from re-
   raising the exception.  (But non-local gotos will still be
   resumed.)

All of the following opcodes use their arguments.

STORE_NAME(namei)

   Implements "name = TOS". *namei* is the index of *name* in the
   attribute "co_names" of the code object. The compiler tries to use
   "STORE_FAST" or "STORE_GLOBAL" if possible.

DELETE_NAME(namei)

   Implements "del name", where *namei* is the index into "co_names"
   attribute of the code object.

UNPACK_SEQUENCE(count)

   Unpacks TOS into *count* individual values, which are put onto the
   stack right-to-left.

UNPACK_EX(counts)

   Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in
   TOS into individual values, where the total number of values can be
   smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one of the new
   values will be a list of all leftover items.

   The low byte of *counts* is the number of values before the list
   value, the high byte of *counts* the number of values after it.
   The resulting values are put onto the stack right-to-left.

STORE_ATTR(namei)

   Implements "TOS.name = TOS1", where *namei* is the index of name in
   "co_names".

DELETE_ATTR(namei)

   Implements "del TOS.name", using *namei* as index into "co_names".

STORE_GLOBAL(namei)

   Works as "STORE_NAME", but stores the name as a global.

DELETE_GLOBAL(namei)

   Works as "DELETE_NAME", but deletes a global name.

LOAD_CONST(consti)

   Pushes "co_consts[consti]" onto the stack.

LOAD_NAME(namei)

   Pushes the value associated with "co_names[namei]" onto the stack.

BUILD_TUPLE(count)

   Creates a tuple consuming *count* items from the stack, and pushes
   the resulting tuple onto the stack.

BUILD_LIST(count)

   Works as "BUILD_TUPLE", but creates a list.

BUILD_SET(count)

   Works as "BUILD_TUPLE", but creates a set.

BUILD_MAP(count)

   Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack.  Pops "2 * count"
   items so that the dictionary holds *count* entries: "{..., TOS3:
   TOS2, TOS1: TOS}".

   Modifié dans la version 3.5: The dictionary is created from stack
   items instead of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold
   *count* items.

BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP(count)

   The version of "BUILD_MAP" specialized for constant keys.  *count*
   values are consumed from the stack.  The top element on the stack
   contains a tuple of keys.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

BUILD_STRING(count)

   Concatenates *count* strings from the stack and pushes the
   resulting string onto the stack.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK(count)

   Pops *count* iterables from the stack, joins them in a single
   tuple, and pushes the result.  Implements iterable unpacking in
   tuple displays "(*x, *y, *z)".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL(count)

   This is similar to "BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK", but is used for "f(*x, *y,
   *z)" call syntax. The stack item at position "count + 1" should be
   the corresponding callable "f".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

BUILD_LIST_UNPACK(count)

   This is similar to "BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK", but pushes a list instead
   of tuple.  Implements iterable unpacking in list displays "[*x, *y,
   *z]".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

BUILD_SET_UNPACK(count)

   This is similar to "BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK", but pushes a set instead
   of tuple.  Implements iterable unpacking in set displays "{*x, *y,
   *z}".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

BUILD_MAP_UNPACK(count)

   Pops *count* mappings from the stack, merges them into a single
   dictionary, and pushes the result.  Implements dictionary unpacking
   in dictionary displays "{**x, **y, **z}".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL(count)

   This is similar to "BUILD_MAP_UNPACK", but is used for "f(**x, **y,
   **z)" call syntax.  The stack item at position "count + 2" should
   be the corresponding callable "f".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

   Modifié dans la version 3.6: The position of the callable is
   determined by adding 2 to the opcode argument instead of encoding
   it in the second byte of the argument.

LOAD_ATTR(namei)

   Replaces TOS with "getattr(TOS, co_names[namei])".

COMPARE_OP(opname)

   Performs a Boolean operation.  The operation name can be found in
   "cmp_op[opname]".

IMPORT_NAME(namei)

   Imports the module "co_names[namei]".  TOS and TOS1 are popped and
   provide the *fromlist* and *level* arguments of "__import__()".
   The module object is pushed onto the stack.  The current namespace
   is not affected: for a proper import statement, a subsequent
   "STORE_FAST" instruction modifies the namespace.

IMPORT_FROM(namei)

   Loads the attribute "co_names[namei]" from the module found in TOS.
   The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently
   stored by a "STORE_FAST" instruction.

JUMP_FORWARD(delta)

   Increments bytecode counter by *delta*.

POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE(target)

   If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to *target*.  TOS is
   popped.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE(target)

   If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to *target*.  TOS is
   popped.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP(target)

   If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to *target* and leaves
   TOS on the stack.  Otherwise (TOS is false), TOS is popped.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP(target)

   If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to *target* and leaves
   TOS on the stack.  Otherwise (TOS is true), TOS is popped.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

JUMP_ABSOLUTE(target)

   Set bytecode counter to *target*.

FOR_ITER(delta)

   TOS is an *iterator*.  Call its "__next__()" method.  If this
   yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator
   below it).  If the iterator indicates it is exhausted TOS is
   popped, and the byte code counter is incremented by *delta*.

LOAD_GLOBAL(namei)

   Loads the global named "co_names[namei]" onto the stack.

SETUP_LOOP(delta)

   Pushes a block for a loop onto the block stack.  The block spans
   from the current instruction with a size of *delta* bytes.

SETUP_EXCEPT(delta)

   Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack.
   *delta* points to the first except block.

SETUP_FINALLY(delta)

   Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack.
   *delta* points to the finally block.

LOAD_FAST(var_num)

   Pushes a reference to the local "co_varnames[var_num]" onto the
   stack.

STORE_FAST(var_num)

   Stores TOS into the local "co_varnames[var_num]".

DELETE_FAST(var_num)

   Deletes local "co_varnames[var_num]".

STORE_ANNOTATION(namei)

   Stores TOS as "locals()['__annotations__'][co_names[namei]] = TOS".

   Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

LOAD_CLOSURE(i)

   Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell
   and free variable storage.  The name of the variable is
   "co_cellvars[i]" if *i* is less than the length of *co_cellvars*.
   Otherwise it is "co_freevars[i - len(co_cellvars)]".

LOAD_DEREF(i)

   Loads the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable
   storage. Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the
   stack.

LOAD_CLASSDEREF(i)

   Much like "LOAD_DEREF" but first checks the locals dictionary
   before consulting the cell.  This is used for loading free
   variables in class bodies.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.4.

STORE_DEREF(i)

   Stores TOS into the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free
   variable storage.

DELETE_DEREF(i)

   Empties the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free
   variable storage. Used by the "del" statement.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

RAISE_VARARGS(argc)

   Raises an exception. *argc* indicates the number of arguments to
   the raise statement, ranging from 0 to 3.  The handler will find
   the traceback as TOS2, the parameter as TOS1, and the exception as
   TOS.

CALL_FUNCTION(argc)

   Calls a callable object with positional arguments. *argc* indicates
   the number of positional arguments. The top of the stack contains
   positional arguments, with the right-most argument on top.  Below
   the arguments is a callable object to call. "CALL_FUNCTION" pops
   all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the
   callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
   returned by the callable object.

   Modifié dans la version 3.6: This opcode is used only for calls
   with positional arguments.

CALL_FUNCTION_KW(argc)

   Calls a callable object with positional (if any) and keyword
   arguments. *argc* indicates the total number of positional and
   keyword arguments. The top element on the stack contains a tuple of
   keyword argument names. Below that are keyword arguments in the
   order corresponding to the tuple. Below that are positional
   arguments, with the right-most parameter on top.  Below the
   arguments is a callable object to call. "CALL_FUNCTION_KW" pops all
   arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable
   object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned
   by the callable object.

   Modifié dans la version 3.6: Keyword arguments are packed in a
   tuple instead of a dictionary, *argc* indicates the total number of
   arguments.

CALL_FUNCTION_EX(flags)

   Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword
   arguments.  If the lowest bit of *flags* is set, the top of the
   stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword
   arguments. Below that is an iterable object containing positional
   arguments and a callable object to call.
   "BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL" and "BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL" can
   be used for merging multiple mapping objects and iterables
   containing arguments. Before the callable is called, the mapping
   object and iterable object are each "unpacked" and their contents
   passed in as keyword and positional arguments respectively.
   "CALL_FUNCTION_EX" pops all arguments and the callable object off
   the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and
   pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

MAKE_FUNCTION(argc)

   Pushes a new function object on the stack.  From bottom to top, the
   consumed stack must consist of values if the argument carries a
   specified flag value

   * "0x01" a tuple of default values for positional-only and
     positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order

   * "0x02" a dictionary of keyword-only parameters' default values

   * "0x04" an annotation dictionary

   * "0x08" a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a
     closure

   * the code associated with the function (at TOS1)

   * the *qualified name* of the function (at TOS)

BUILD_SLICE(argc)

   Pushes a slice object on the stack.  *argc* must be 2 or 3.  If it
   is 2, "slice(TOS1, TOS)" is pushed; if it is 3, "slice(TOS2, TOS1,
   TOS)" is pushed. See the "slice()" built-in function for more
   information.

EXTENDED_ARG(ext)

   Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the
   default two bytes.  *ext* holds two additional bytes which, taken
   together with the subsequent opcode's argument, comprise a four-
   byte argument, *ext* being the two most-significant bytes.

FORMAT_VALUE(flags)

   Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).  Pops
   an optional *fmt_spec* from the stack, then a required *value*.
   *flags* is interpreted as follows:

   * "(flags & 0x03) == 0x00": *value* is formatted as-is.

   * "(flags & 0x03) == 0x01": call "str()" on *value* before
     formatting it.

   * "(flags & 0x03) == 0x02": call "repr()" on *value* before
     formatting it.

   * "(flags & 0x03) == 0x03": call "ascii()" on *value* before
     formatting it.

   * "(flags & 0x04) == 0x04": pop *fmt_spec* from the stack and use
     it, else use an empty *fmt_spec*.

   Formatting is performed using "PyObject_Format()".  The result is
   pushed on the stack.

   Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

HAVE_ARGUMENT

   This is not really an opcode.  It identifies the dividing line
   between opcodes which don't use their argument and those that do
   ("< HAVE_ARGUMENT" and ">= HAVE_ARGUMENT", respectively).

   Modifié dans la version 3.6: Now every instruction has an argument,
   but opcodes "< HAVE_ARGUMENT" ignore it. Before, only opcodes ">=
   HAVE_ARGUMENT" had an argument.


32.12.4. Opcode collections
===========================

These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode
instructions:

dis.opname

   Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.

dis.opmap

   Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.

dis.cmp_op

   Sequence of all compare operation names.

dis.hasconst

   Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.

dis.hasfree

   Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable (note that 'free'
   in this context refers to names in the current scope that are
   referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that are
   referenced from this scope.  It does *not* include references to
   global or builtin scopes).

dis.hasname

   Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.

dis.hasjrel

   Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.

dis.hasjabs

   Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.

dis.haslocal

   Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.

dis.hascompare

   Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.
