# 32.12. `dis` – Désassembleur pour le code intermédiaire de Python

Code source : Lib/dis.py

La bibliothèque `dis` supporte l’analyse du bytecode CPython en le désassemblant. Le code intermédiaire CPython, que cette bibliothèque prend en paramètre, est défini dans le fichier `Include/opcode.h` et est utilisé par le compilateur et l’interpréteur.

CPython implementation detail: Le code intermédiaire est un détail d’implémentation de l’interpréteur CPython. Il n’y a pas de garantie que le code intermédiaire sera ajouté, retiré, ou modifié dans les différentes versions de Python. L’utilisation de cette bibliothèque ne fonctionne pas nécessairement sur les machines virtuelles Python ni les différentes versions de Python.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Utilisez 2 bits pour chaque instruction. Avant, le nombre de bits variait par instruction.

Exemple : Etant donné la fonction `myfunc()` :

    def myfunc(alist):
        return len(alist)

la commande suivante peut-être utilisé pour afficher le désassemblage de `myfunc()` :

    >>> dis.dis(myfunc)
      2           0 LOAD_GLOBAL              0 (len)
                  2 LOAD_FAST                0 (alist)
                  4 CALL_FUNCTION            1
                  6 RETURN_VALUE

(Le « 2 » est un numéro de ligne).

## 32.12.1. Analyse du code intermédiaire

Nouveau dans la version 3.4.

L’analyse de l”API code intermédiaire permet de rassembler des blocs de code en Python dans une classe `Bytecode`, qui permet un accès facile aux détails du code compilé.

class `dis.``Bytecode`(x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None)

  Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator, method, string of source code, or a code object (as returned by `compile()`).

  Ceci est wrapper sur plusieurs fonctions de la liste ci-dessous, notamment `get_instructions()`, étant donné qu’une itération sur une instance de la classe `Bytecode` rend les opérations du code intermédiaire des instances de `Instruction`.

  Si first_line ne vaut pas `None`, elle indique le nombre de la ligne qui doit être considérée comme première ligne source dans le code désassemblé. Autrement, les informations sur la ligne source sont prises directement à partir de la classe du code désassemblé.

  Si la valeur de current_offset est différente de `None`, c’est une référence à un offset d’une instruction dans le code désassemblé. Cela veut dire que `dis()` va générer un marqueur de » l’instruction en cours » contre le code d’opération donné.

  classmethod `from_traceback`(tb)

    Construisez une instance `Bytecode` à partir de la trace d’appel, en mettant current_offet à l’instruction responsable de l’exception.

  `codeobj`

    Le code compilé objet.

  `first_line`

    La première ligne source du code objet (si disponible)

  `dis`()

    Retourne une vue formatée des opérations du code intermédiaire (la même que celle envoyée par `dis.dis()`, mais comme une chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes ).

  `info`()

    Retourne une chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes formatée avec des informations détaillées sur l’objet code comme `code_info()`.

Exemple :

    >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
    >>> for instr in bytecode:
    ...     print(instr.opname)
    ...
    LOAD_GLOBAL
    LOAD_FAST
    CALL_FUNCTION
    RETURN_VALUE

## 32.12.2. Analyse de fonctions

La bibliothèque `dis` comprend également l’analyse des fonctions suivantes, qui envoient l’entrée directement à la sortie souhaitée. Elles peuvent être utiles si il n’y a qu’une seule opération à effectuer, la représentation intermédiaire objet n’étant donc pas utile dans ce cas:

`dis.``code_info`(x)

  Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object information for the supplied function, generator, method, source code string or code object.

  Il est à noter que le contenu exact des chaînes de caractères figurant dans les informations du code dépendent fortement sur l’implémentation, et peuvent changer arbitrairement sous machines virtuelles Python ou les versions de Python.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

`dis.``show_code`(x, *, file=None)

  Affiche des informations détaillées sur le code de la fonction fournie, la méthode, la chaîne de caractère du code source ou du code objet à file (ou bien `sys.stdout` si file n’est pas spécifié).

  Ceci est un raccourci convenable de `print(code_info(x), file=file)`, principalement fait pour l’exploration interactive sur l’invite de l’interpréteur.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

  Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre file.

`dis.``dis`(x=None, *, file=None)

  Disassemble the x object. x can denote either a module, a class, a method, a function, a generator, a code object, a string of source code or a byte sequence of raw bytecode. For a module, it disassembles all functions. For a class, it disassembles all methods (including class and static methods). For a code object or sequence of raw bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction. Strings are first compiled to code objects with the `compile()` built-in function before being disassembled. If no object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.

  Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l’argument du fichier file si il est fourni, et à `sys.stdout` sinon.

  Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre file.

`dis.``distb`(tb=None, *, file=None)

  Désassemble la fonction du haut de la pile des traces d’appels, en utilisant la dernière trace d’appels si rien n’a été envoyé. L’instruction à l’origine de l’exception est indiquée.

  Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l’argument du fichier file si il est fourni, et à `sys.stdout` sinon.

  Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre file.

`dis.``disassemble`(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None)
`dis.``disco`(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None)

  Désassemble un code objet, en indiquant la dernière instruction si lasti est fournie. La sortie est répartie sur les colonnes suivantes :

  1. le numéro de ligne, pour la première instruction de chaque ligne

  2. l’instruction en cours, indiquée par `-->`,

  3. une instruction libellée, indiquée par `> >`,

  4. l’adresse de l’instruction,

  5. le nom de le code d’opération,

  6. paramètres de l’opération, et

  7. interprétation des paramètres entre parenthèses.

  L’interprétation du paramètre reconnaît les noms des variables locales et globales, des valeurs constantes, des branchements cibles, et des opérateurs de comparaison.

  Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l’argument du fichier file si il est fourni, et à `sys.stdout` sinon.

  Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre file.

`dis.``get_instructions`(x, *, first_line=None)

  Retourne un itérateur sur les instructions dans la fonction fournie, la méthode, les chaînes de caractères du code source ou objet.

  Cet itérateur génère une série de n-uplets de `Instruction` qui donnent les détails de chacune des opérations dans le code fourni.

  Si first_line ne vaut pas `None`, elle indique le nombre de la ligne qui doit être considérée comme première ligne source dans le code désassemblé. Autrement, les informations sur la ligne source sont prises directement à partir de la classe du code désassemblé.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.4.

`dis.``findlinestarts`(code)

  This generator function uses the `co_firstlineno` and `co_lnotab` attributes of the code object code to find the offsets which are starts of lines in the source code. They are generated as `(offset, lineno)` pairs. See Objects/lnotab_notes.txt for the `co_lnotab` format and how to decode it.

  Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les numéros de lignes peuvent être décroissants. Avant, ils étaient toujours croissants.

`dis.``findlabels`(code)

  Detect all offsets in the code object code which are jump targets, and return a list of these offsets.

`dis.``stack_effect`(opcode[, oparg])

  Compute the stack effect of opcode with argument oparg.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.4.

## 32.12.3. Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python

La fonction `get_instructions()` et la méthode `Bytecode` fournit des détails sur le code intermédiaire des instructions comme `Instruction` instances:

class `dis.``Instruction`

  Détails sur le code intermédiaire de l’opération

  `opcode`

    code numérique pour l’opération, correspondant aux valeurs de l”opcode ci-dessous et les valeurs du code intermédiaire dans la Opcode collections.

  `opname`

    nom lisible/compréhensible de l’opération

  `arg`

    le cas échéant, argument numérique de l’opération sinon `None`

  `argval`

    resolved arg value (if known), otherwise same as arg

  `argrepr`

    human readable description of operation argument

  `offset`

    start index of operation within bytecode sequence

  `starts_line`

    line started by this opcode (if any), otherwise `None`

  `is_jump_target`

    `True` if other code jumps to here, otherwise `False`

  Nouveau dans la version 3.4.

The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions.

General instructions

`NOP`

  Do nothing code. Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer.

`POP_TOP`

  Removes the top-of-stack (TOS) item.

`ROT_TWO`

  Swaps the two top-most stack items.

`ROT_THREE`

  Lifts second and third stack item one position up, moves top down to position three.

`DUP_TOP`

  Duplicates the reference on top of the stack.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

`DUP_TOP_TWO`

  Duplicates the two references on top of the stack, leaving them in the same order.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

Unary operations

Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and push the result back on the stack.

`UNARY_POSITIVE`

  Implements `TOS = +TOS`.

`UNARY_NEGATIVE`

  Implements `TOS = -TOS`.

`UNARY_NOT`

  Implements `TOS = not TOS`.

`UNARY_INVERT`

  Implements `TOS = ~TOS`.

`GET_ITER`

  Implements `TOS = iter(TOS)`.

`GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER`

  If `TOS` is a generator iterator or coroutine object it is left as is. Otherwise, implements `TOS = iter(TOS)`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

Binary operations

Binary operations remove the top of the stack (TOS) and the second top-most stack item (TOS1) from the stack. They perform the operation, and put the result back on the stack.

`BINARY_POWER`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 ** TOS`.

`BINARY_MULTIPLY`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 * TOS`.

`BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 @ TOS`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 // TOS`.

`BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 / TOS`.

`BINARY_MODULO`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 % TOS`.

`BINARY_ADD`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 + TOS`.

`BINARY_SUBTRACT`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 - TOS`.

`BINARY_SUBSCR`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1[TOS]`.

`BINARY_LSHIFT`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 << TOS`.

`BINARY_RSHIFT`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 >> TOS`.

`BINARY_AND`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 & TOS`.

`BINARY_XOR`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS`.

`BINARY_OR`

  Implements `TOS = TOS1 | TOS`.

In-place operations

In-place operations are like binary operations, in that they remove TOS and TOS1, and push the result back on the stack, but the operation is done in-place when TOS1 supports it, and the resulting TOS may be (but does not have to be) the original TOS1.

`INPLACE_POWER`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 ** TOS`.

`INPLACE_MULTIPLY`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 * TOS`.

`INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 @ TOS`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 // TOS`.

`INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 / TOS`.

`INPLACE_MODULO`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 % TOS`.

`INPLACE_ADD`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 + TOS`.

`INPLACE_SUBTRACT`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 - TOS`.

`INPLACE_LSHIFT`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 << TOS`.

`INPLACE_RSHIFT`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 >> TOS`.

`INPLACE_AND`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 & TOS`.

`INPLACE_XOR`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS`.

`INPLACE_OR`

  Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 | TOS`.

`STORE_SUBSCR`

  Implements `TOS1[TOS] = TOS2`.

`DELETE_SUBSCR`

  Implements `del TOS1[TOS]`.

Coroutine opcodes

`GET_AWAITABLE`

  Implements `TOS = get_awaitable(TOS)`, where `get_awaitable(o)` returns `o` if `o` is a coroutine object or a generator object with the CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE flag, or resolves `o.__await__`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`GET_AITER`

  Implements `TOS = get_awaitable(TOS.__aiter__())`. See `GET_AWAITABLE` for details about `get_awaitable`

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`GET_ANEXT`

  Implements `PUSH(get_awaitable(TOS.__anext__()))`. See `GET_AWAITABLE` for details about `get_awaitable`

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH`

  Resolves `__aenter__` and `__aexit__` from the object on top of the stack. Pushes `__aexit__` and result of `__aenter__()` to the stack.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`SETUP_ASYNC_WITH`

  Creates a new frame object.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

Miscellaneous opcodes

`PRINT_EXPR`

  Implements the expression statement for the interactive mode. TOS is removed from the stack and printed. In non-interactive mode, an expression statement is terminated with `POP_TOP`.

`BREAK_LOOP`

  Terminates a loop due to a `break` statement.

`CONTINUE_LOOP`(target)

  Continues a loop due to a `continue` statement. target is the address to jump to (which should be a `FOR_ITER` instruction).

`SET_ADD`(i)

  Calls `set.add(TOS1[-i], TOS)`. Used to implement set comprehensions.

`LIST_APPEND`(i)

  Calls `list.append(TOS[-i], TOS)`. Used to implement list comprehensions.

`MAP_ADD`(i)

  Calls `dict.setitem(TOS1[-i], TOS, TOS1)`. Used to implement dict comprehensions.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

For all of the `SET_ADD`, `LIST_APPEND` and `MAP_ADD` instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is popped off, the container object remains on the stack so that it is available for further iterations of the loop.

`RETURN_VALUE`

  Returns with TOS to the caller of the function.

`YIELD_VALUE`

  Pops TOS and yields it from a generator.

`YIELD_FROM`

  Pops TOS and delegates to it as a subiterator from a generator.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.3.

`SETUP_ANNOTATIONS`

  Checks whether `__annotations__` is defined in `locals()`, if not it is set up to an empty `dict`. This opcode is only emitted if a class or module body contains variable annotations statically.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

`IMPORT_STAR`

  Loads all symbols not starting with `'_'` directly from the module TOS to the local namespace. The module is popped after loading all names. This opcode implements `from module import *`.

`POP_BLOCK`

  Removes one block from the block stack. Per frame, there is a stack of blocks, denoting nested loops, try statements, and such.

`POP_EXCEPT`

  Removes one block from the block stack. The popped block must be an exception handler block, as implicitly created when entering an except handler. In addition to popping extraneous values from the frame stack, the last three popped values are used to restore the exception state.

`END_FINALLY`

  Terminates a `finally` clause. The interpreter recalls whether the exception has to be re-raised, or whether the function returns, and continues with the outer-next block.

`LOAD_BUILD_CLASS`

  Pushes `builtins.__build_class__()` onto the stack. It is later called by `CALL_FUNCTION` to construct a class.

`SETUP_WITH`(delta)

  This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts. First, it loads `__exit__()` from the context manager and pushes it onto the stack for later use by `WITH_CLEANUP`. Then, `__enter__()` is called, and a finally block pointing to delta is pushed. Finally, the result of calling the enter method is pushed onto the stack. The next opcode will either ignore it (`POP_TOP`), or store it in (a) variable(s) (`STORE_FAST`, `STORE_NAME`, or `UNPACK_SEQUENCE`).

  Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

`WITH_CLEANUP_START`

  Cleans up the stack when a `with` statement block exits. TOS is the context manager’s `__exit__()` bound method. Below TOS are 1–3 values indicating how/why the finally clause was entered:

  - SECOND = `None`

  - (SECOND, THIRD) = (`WHY_{RETURN,CONTINUE}`), retval

  - SECOND = `WHY_*`; no retval below it

  - (SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH) = exc_info()

  In the last case, `TOS(SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH)` is called, otherwise `TOS(None, None, None)`. Pushes SECOND and result of the call to the stack.

`WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH`

  Pops exception type and result of “exit” function call from the stack.

  If the stack represents an exception, and the function call returns a “true” value, this information is « zapped » and replaced with a single `WHY_SILENCED` to prevent `END_FINALLY` from re-raising the exception. (But non-local gotos will still be resumed.)

All of the following opcodes use their arguments.

`STORE_NAME`(namei)

  Implements `name = TOS`. namei is the index of name in the attribute `co_names` of the code object. The compiler tries to use `STORE_FAST` or `STORE_GLOBAL` if possible.

`DELETE_NAME`(namei)

  Implements `del name`, where namei is the index into `co_names` attribute of the code object.

`UNPACK_SEQUENCE`(count)

  Unpacks TOS into count individual values, which are put onto the stack right-to-left.

`UNPACK_EX`(counts)

  Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in TOS into individual values, where the total number of values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one of the new values will be a list of all leftover items.

  The low byte of counts is the number of values before the list value, the high byte of counts the number of values after it. The resulting values are put onto the stack right-to-left.

`STORE_ATTR`(namei)

  Implements `TOS.name = TOS1`, where namei is the index of name in `co_names`.

`DELETE_ATTR`(namei)

  Implements `del TOS.name`, using namei as index into `co_names`.

`STORE_GLOBAL`(namei)

  Works as `STORE_NAME`, but stores the name as a global.

`DELETE_GLOBAL`(namei)

  Works as `DELETE_NAME`, but deletes a global name.

`LOAD_CONST`(consti)

  Pushes `co_consts[consti]` onto the stack.

`LOAD_NAME`(namei)

  Pushes the value associated with `co_names[namei]` onto the stack.

`BUILD_TUPLE`(count)

  Creates a tuple consuming count items from the stack, and pushes the resulting tuple onto the stack.

`BUILD_LIST`(count)

  Works as `BUILD_TUPLE`, but creates a list.

`BUILD_SET`(count)

  Works as `BUILD_TUPLE`, but creates a set.

`BUILD_MAP`(count)

  Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack. Pops `2 * count` items so that the dictionary holds count entries: `{..., TOS3: TOS2, TOS1: TOS}`.

  Modifié dans la version 3.5: The dictionary is created from stack items instead of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold count items.

`BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP`(count)

  The version of `BUILD_MAP` specialized for constant keys. count values are consumed from the stack. The top element on the stack contains a tuple of keys.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

`BUILD_STRING`(count)

  Concatenates count strings from the stack and pushes the resulting string onto the stack.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`(count)

  Pops count iterables from the stack, joins them in a single tuple, and pushes the result. Implements iterable unpacking in tuple displays `(*x, *y, *z)`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL`(count)

  This is similar to `BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`, but is used for `f(*x, *y, *z)` call syntax. The stack item at position `count + 1` should be the corresponding callable `f`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

`BUILD_LIST_UNPACK`(count)

  This is similar to `BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`, but pushes a list instead of tuple. Implements iterable unpacking in list displays `[*x, *y, *z]`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`BUILD_SET_UNPACK`(count)

  This is similar to `BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`, but pushes a set instead of tuple. Implements iterable unpacking in set displays `{*x, *y, *z}`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK`(count)

  Pops count mappings from the stack, merges them into a single dictionary, and pushes the result. Implements dictionary unpacking in dictionary displays `{**x, **y, **z}`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL`(count)

  This is similar to `BUILD_MAP_UNPACK`, but is used for `f(**x, **y, **z)` call syntax. The stack item at position `count + 2` should be the corresponding callable `f`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.5.

  Modifié dans la version 3.6: The position of the callable is determined by adding 2 to the opcode argument instead of encoding it in the second byte of the argument.

`LOAD_ATTR`(namei)

  Replaces TOS with `getattr(TOS, co_names[namei])`.

`COMPARE_OP`(opname)

  Performs a Boolean operation. The operation name can be found in `cmp_op[opname]`.

`IMPORT_NAME`(namei)

  Imports the module `co_names[namei]`. TOS and TOS1 are popped and provide the fromlist and level arguments of `__import__()`. The module object is pushed onto the stack. The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import statement, a subsequent `STORE_FAST` instruction modifies the namespace.

`IMPORT_FROM`(namei)

  Loads the attribute `co_names[namei]` from the module found in TOS. The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently stored by a `STORE_FAST` instruction.

`JUMP_FORWARD`(delta)

  Increments bytecode counter by delta.

`POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE`(target)

  If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to target. TOS is popped.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

`POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE`(target)

  If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to target. TOS is popped.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

`JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP`(target)

  If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to target and leaves TOS on the stack. Otherwise (TOS is false), TOS is popped.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

`JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP`(target)

  If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to target and leaves TOS on the stack. Otherwise (TOS is true), TOS is popped.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.1.

`JUMP_ABSOLUTE`(target)

  Set bytecode counter to target.

`FOR_ITER`(delta)

  TOS is an iterator. Call its `__next__()` method. If this yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator below it). If the iterator indicates it is exhausted TOS is popped, and the byte code counter is incremented by delta.

`LOAD_GLOBAL`(namei)

  Loads the global named `co_names[namei]` onto the stack.

`SETUP_LOOP`(delta)

  Pushes a block for a loop onto the block stack. The block spans from the current instruction with a size of delta bytes.

`SETUP_EXCEPT`(delta)

  Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. delta points to the first except block.

`SETUP_FINALLY`(delta)

  Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. delta points to the finally block.

`LOAD_FAST`(var_num)

  Pushes a reference to the local `co_varnames[var_num]` onto the stack.

`STORE_FAST`(var_num)

  Stores TOS into the local `co_varnames[var_num]`.

`DELETE_FAST`(var_num)

  Deletes local `co_varnames[var_num]`.

`STORE_ANNOTATION`(namei)

  Stores TOS as `locals()['__annotations__'][co_names[namei]] = TOS`.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

`LOAD_CLOSURE`(i)

  Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot i of the cell and free variable storage. The name of the variable is `co_cellvars[i]` if i is less than the length of co_cellvars. Otherwise it is `co_freevars[i - len(co_cellvars)]`.

`LOAD_DEREF`(i)

  Loads the cell contained in slot i of the cell and free variable storage. Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.

`LOAD_CLASSDEREF`(i)

  Much like `LOAD_DEREF` but first checks the locals dictionary before consulting the cell. This is used for loading free variables in class bodies.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.4.

`STORE_DEREF`(i)

  Stores TOS into the cell contained in slot i of the cell and free variable storage.

`DELETE_DEREF`(i)

  Empties the cell contained in slot i of the cell and free variable storage. Used by the `del` statement.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.2.

`RAISE_VARARGS`(argc)

  Raises an exception. argc indicates the number of arguments to the raise statement, ranging from 0 to 3. The handler will find the traceback as TOS2, the parameter as TOS1, and the exception as TOS.

`CALL_FUNCTION`(argc)

  Calls a callable object with positional arguments. argc indicates the number of positional arguments. The top of the stack contains positional arguments, with the right-most argument on top. Below the arguments is a callable object to call. `CALL_FUNCTION` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

  Modifié dans la version 3.6: This opcode is used only for calls with positional arguments.

`CALL_FUNCTION_KW`(argc)

  Calls a callable object with positional (if any) and keyword arguments. argc indicates the total number of positional and keyword arguments. The top element on the stack contains a tuple of keyword argument names. Below that are keyword arguments in the order corresponding to the tuple. Below that are positional arguments, with the right-most parameter on top. Below the arguments is a callable object to call. `CALL_FUNCTION_KW` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

  Modifié dans la version 3.6: Keyword arguments are packed in a tuple instead of a dictionary, argc indicates the total number of arguments.

`CALL_FUNCTION_EX`(flags)

  Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword arguments. If the lowest bit of flags is set, the top of the stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword arguments. Below that is an iterable object containing positional arguments and a callable object to call. `BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL` and `BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL` can be used for merging multiple mapping objects and iterables containing arguments. Before the callable is called, the mapping object and iterable object are each « unpacked » and their contents passed in as keyword and positional arguments respectively. `CALL_FUNCTION_EX` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

`MAKE_FUNCTION`(argc)

  Pushes a new function object on the stack. From bottom to top, the consumed stack must consist of values if the argument carries a specified flag value

  - `0x01` a tuple of default values for positional-only and positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order

  - `0x02` a dictionary of keyword-only parameters” default values

  - `0x04` an annotation dictionary

  - `0x08` a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a closure

  - the code associated with the function (at TOS1)

  - the qualified name of the function (at TOS)

`BUILD_SLICE`(argc)

  Pushes a slice object on the stack. argc must be 2 or 3. If it is 2, `slice(TOS1, TOS)` is pushed; if it is 3, `slice(TOS2, TOS1, TOS)` is pushed. See the `slice()` built-in function for more information.

`EXTENDED_ARG`(ext)

  Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the default two bytes. ext holds two additional bytes which, taken together with the subsequent opcode’s argument, comprise a four-byte argument, ext being the two most-significant bytes.

`FORMAT_VALUE`(flags)

  Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings). Pops an optional fmt_spec from the stack, then a required value. flags is interpreted as follows:

  - `(flags & 0x03) == 0x00`: value is formatted as-is.

  - `(flags & 0x03) == 0x01`: call `str()` on value before formatting it.

  - `(flags & 0x03) == 0x02`: call `repr()` on value before formatting it.

  - `(flags & 0x03) == 0x03`: call `ascii()` on value before formatting it.

  - `(flags & 0x04) == 0x04`: pop fmt_spec from the stack and use it, else use an empty fmt_spec.

  Formatting is performed using `PyObject_Format()`. The result is pushed on the stack.

  Nouveau dans la version 3.6.

`HAVE_ARGUMENT`

  This is not really an opcode. It identifies the dividing line between opcodes which don’t use their argument and those that do (`< HAVE_ARGUMENT` and `>= HAVE_ARGUMENT`, respectively).

  Modifié dans la version 3.6: Now every instruction has an argument, but opcodes `< HAVE_ARGUMENT` ignore it. Before, only opcodes `>= HAVE_ARGUMENT` had an argument.

## 32.12.4. Opcode collections

These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode instructions:

`dis.``opname`

  Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.

`dis.``opmap`

  Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.

`dis.``cmp_op`

  Sequence of all compare operation names.

`dis.``hasconst`

  Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.

`dis.``hasfree`

  Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable (note that “free” in this context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this scope. It does not include references to global or builtin scopes).

`dis.``hasname`

  Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.

`dis.``hasjrel`

  Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.

`dis.``hasjabs`

  Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.

`dis.``haslocal`

  Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.

`dis.``hascompare`

  Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.